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Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences 2nd Edition - April 29, 2014
Editors: Robert B. Daroff, Michael J. Aminoff
Hardback ISBN: 9780123851574 9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 3 8 5 1 5 7 - 4
eBook ISBN: 9780123851581 9 7 8 - 0 - 1 2 - 3 8 5 1 5 8 - 1
The Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences, Second Edition, Four Volume Set develops from the first edition, covering all areas of neurological sciences through over 1000 entr… Read more
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The Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences, Second Edition, Four Volume Set develops from the first edition, covering all areas of neurological sciences through over 1000 entries focused on a wide variety of topics in neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry and other related areas of neuroscience. The contributing authors represent all aspects of neurology from many viewpoints and disciplines to provide a complete overview of the field. Entries are designed to be understandable without detailed background knowledge in the subject matter, and cross-referencing and suggested further reading lead the reader from a basic knowledge of the subject to more advanced understanding.
The easy-to-use 'encyclopedic-dictionary' format of the Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences, Second Edition features alphabetic entries, extensive cross-referencing, and a thorough index for quick reference. The wealth of information provided by these four volumes makes this reference work a trusted source of valuable information for a wide range of researchers, from undergraduate students to academic researchers.
Provides comprehensive coverage of the field of neurological science in over 1,000 entries in 4 volumes "Encyclopedic-dictionary" format provides for concise, readable entries and easy searching Presents complete, up-to-date information on 32 separate areas of neurology Entries are supplemented with extensive cross-referencing, useful references to primary research articles, and an extensive index Students of all levels and reserchers in neurological sciences as well as individuals from other disciplines who wish to gain an understanding of subjects in the neurological sciences and their impacts
Editors-in-chief Associate Editors Preface Permission Acknowledgments Article Titles A Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI) Abstract Anatomy Abducens Nerve Palsy Differential Diagnosis Specific Syndromes and Clinical Associations Pathophysiology Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Abetalipoproteinemia (ABL, Bassen–Kornzweig Disease) Abstract See also Further Reading Abnormal Illness Behaviors Abstract Introduction Somatoform Disorders Etiology Somatization Disorder Body Dysmorphic Disorder Conversion Disorder Hypochondriasis Pain Disorder Factitious Disorder Malingering Guidelines for Management DSM-V Update See also Further Reading Abscess, Brain and Spine Abstract See also Further Reading Abulia Abstract See also Further Reading Accessory Nerve (Cranial Nerve XI) Abstract Introduction Fuctional Components Anatomy Physical Examination Lesions Affecting the Accessory Nerve See also Further Reading Acetylcholine Abstract Introduction History Metabolism Current and Future Issues See also Further Reading Acoustic Neuroma – Contemporary Management of Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas Abstract Introduction Observation Gamma Knife Radiosurgery Surgery Patient Selection Conclusion See also Further Reading Acoustic Neuroma, Treatment of Abstract Tumor Genetics Clinical Presentation Treatment See also Further Reading Acrylamide and Related α ,β -Unsaturated Carbonyl Derivatives Abstract Introduction Human and Experimental Acrylamide Neurotoxicity Molecular Mechanism of Acrylamide Neurotoxicity The Type-2 Alkene Family of Chemical Toxicants See also Further Reading Acrylonitrile Abstract Description Production Routes of Exposure Metabolism and Elimination of Acrylonitrile Neurological Effects Mechanisms See also Further Reading Actigraphy Abstract Introduction Technical Considerations Surrogate Measure of Sleep–Wake Direct Measure for Body Movements Conclusion See also Further Reading Action Potential, Generation of Abstract Introduction Sodium Channel Gating Properties Course of Events During an Action Potential Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Action Potential, Regeneration of Abstract Introduction Factors Affecting the Rate of Action Potential Regeneration Mechanisms for Action Potential Regeneration Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Activities of Daily Living Abstract Introduction Assessment Functional Assessment Instruments Summary See also Further Reading Acute Motor and Motor–Sensory Neuropathy (Axonal Subtypes of Guillain–Barré Syndrome), Immunology of Abstract Historical Aspect Clinical Features Neurophysiological Features Immunopathogenesis of Axonal Guillain–Barré Syndrome Management and Prognosis See also Further Reading Adams, Raymond Abstract See also Further Reading Addison's Disease Abstract History and Definition Etiologies and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Adenoviruses Abstract Introduction Virus Structure and Genome Organization Virus Infection and Disease Pathogenesis Adenovirus Central Nervous System Infections Adenoviruses and Central Nervous System Tumors Adenoviruses as a Vector for Gene Therapy of Central Nervous System Diseases Role of Host Immune System See also Further Reading Adrenal Gland Abstract Embryology and Anatomy Zonation and Physiology Steroid and Catecholamine Biosynthesis Pathophysiological Principles of Adrenal Diseases See also Further Reading Adrenoleukodystrophy Abstract Clinical Characteristics Pathology Biochemistry and Genetics Management See also Further Reading Adrian, Edgar Douglas Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Ageusia Abstract Introduction Why is Ageusia a Problem? Epidemiology Causes Diagnosis and Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Aging and Sleep Abstract Introduction Age-Related Changes in Sleep Circadian Rhythm Disturbances Primary Sleep Disorders Insomnia Conclusion Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Aging, Overview Abstract Introduction Methodological Issues in Studying Brain and Cognitive Aging Central Nervous System Substrates of Age-Related Cognitive Change Normal Aging and Preclinical Alzheimer's Disease Summary See also Further Reading Agnosia Abstract Overview Agnosia: Clinical Classification and Research Models Visual Agnosia Auditory Agnosia Somatosensory (Tactile) Agnosia Etiologies See also Further Reading Agrammatism Abstract Overview Associated Neurological Disorders Clinical Assessment of Agrammatism See also Further Reading Agraphia Abstract Assessment Agraphia Associated with Language Disturbances Agraphia not Associated with Language Disturbances Other Varieties Treatment See also Further Reading Agrypnia Abstract See also Further Reading AIDS/HIV and Neurological Disease Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Recent Developments in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Treatment Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Neurological Disease Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System See also Further Reading Airy, George and Hubert Abstract See also Further Reading Akathisia Abstract See also Further Reading Akinesia Abstract See also Further Reading Akinetic Mutism Abstract See also Further Reading Alertness (Crude Consciousness) Abstract Introduction Anatomy and Physiology Disorders of Wakefulness with Brain Disorders See also Further Reading Alexander's Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Pathology Genetic Observations Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Alexia Abstract Introduction Assessment Alexia Associated with Language Disturbances Alexia not Associated with Language Disturbances Treatment See also Further Reading Alien Limb Abstract See also Further Reading Alpers' Disease (Progressive Infantile Poliodystrophy) Abstract Introduction Diagnostic Studies Pathology Etiology Differential Diagnosis Prognosis See also Further Reading Aluminum Abstract Properties and Natural Occurrence Uses and Human Exposure Measuring Aluminum Bioavailability and Biotransformation Biokinetics of Aluminum in Blood, across the Blood–Brain Barrier, and into the Brain Aluminum Tissue Deposition and Body Retention Aluminum Excretion Aluminum Toxicity Further Reading Alzheimer, Alois Abstract See also Further Reading Alzheimer's Disease Abstract Epidemiology Clinical Presentation Pathology Pathogenesis Genetics Biomarkers Treatment See also Further Reading Alzheimer's Disease; Epidemiology Abstract Introduction Diagnosis and Diagnostic Criteria Frequency of Alzheimer's Disease Analytic Epidemiology Factors Associated with Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias Conclusions See also Further Reading American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) Abstract Introduction General Aspects of American Trypanosomiasis Involvement of the Nervous System in the Course of American Trypanosomiasis See also Further Reading Amino Acid Disorders Abstract Introduction General Properties of Amino Acids Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism See also Further Reading Ammonia Abstract General Characteristics of Ammonia Metabolism in Mammals Hyperammonemic Encephalopathies See also Further Reading Amphetamines Abstract See also Further Reading Amygdala Abstract General Anatomy Cell Types and Neurotransmitters Functional Anatomy of the Amygdala Functional and Clinical Significance of the Human Amygdala See also Further Reading Amygdalohippocampectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Amyloidosis Abstract Amyloidosis and Amyloid Proteins Cerebral Amyloidosis Extracerebral Amyloidosis with Neurological Relevance Conclusions See also Further Reading Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Abstract Introduction The Clinical Picture Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Analgesics, Other Abstract Other Analgesics Muscle Relaxants Topical Agents for Analgesia Summary See also Further Reading Anencephaly Abstract See also Further Reading Anesthetics Abstract Inhalational Anesthetics Intravenous Anesthetics Developmental Brain Toxicity See also Further Reading Aneurysms, Intracranial Abstract Saccular Aneurysms Other Aneurysm Types Natural History Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Imaging Lumbar Puncture Classification Scales for Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Treatment Prognosis Pathogenesis of Aneurysms Clinical Presentation of Aneurysm Rupture Subarachnoid Hemorrhage See also Further Reading Aneurysms, Surgery Abstract Introduction Presentation Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysms Symptomatic Aneurysms Imaging Surgical Treatment of Aneurysms Surgery for Aneurysms Unruptured Aneurysms Ruptured Aneurysms Anesthesia Surgical Techniques Confirmation of Aneurysm Exclusion Aneurysm Rebleeding See also Further Reading Angiography (Arteriography) Abstract Introduction History Physical Principles Technique Risks Applications See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Angular Gyrus Syndrome Abstract Introduction Components of the Angular Gyrus Syndrome Gerstmann's Syndrome See also Further Reading Anomia Abstract Introduction Anomia in Aphasia Naming Word Fluency Anomic Aphasia Anomia in Dementia Anatomy of the Mental Lexicon A Single Lexicon or Multiple Mental Representations of Names? See also Further Reading Anosognosia Abstract Introduction Historical Perspective Anosognosia Deficits and Associated Pathologies Theories and Models of Anosognosia Etiology Measurement/Assessment of Anosognosia See also Further Reading Anterior Spinal Artery Occlusion Abstract See also Further Reading Antianxiety Pharmacology Abstract Introduction Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors Selective Serotonin–Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors Tricyclic Antidepressants Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors Other Pharmacological Agents See also Further Reading Antibiotics, β -Lactam Abstract Description Pharmacokinetics Antibacterial Mechanism of Action Glutamate Uptake Activator Potential Utility as a Central Nervous System-Active Therapeutic Glutamate-based Mechanism of Action See also Further Reading Anticancer Agents Abstract See also Further Reading Anticoagulant Treatment Abstract Introduction Parenterally Administered Anticoagulants Anticoagulation for Treatment of Acute Ischemic Stroke Long-Term Anticoagulation to Prevent Ischemic Stroke Conclusions See also Further Reading Antidepressants, Pharmacology of Abstract Introduction Therapeutic Overview of Antidepressants Mechanism of Action Specific Classes of Antidepressants Choosing an Antidepressant Special Populations See also Further Reading Antiepileptic Drug Therapy Abstract History of Antiepileptic Drug Treatment Comparative Efficacy of Antiepileptic Drugs Recognized Antiepileptic Drugs See also Further Reading Antiphospholipid Antibodies Abstract Antiphospholipid Syndrome Pathogenesis aPL and Nonstroke Associations Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Antiplatelet Therapy Abstract Summary See also Further Reading Anxiety Abstract Introduction Generalized Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder See also Further Reading Aphasia: Overview Abstract Aphasia Syndromes Localization of Aphasic Signs and Syndromes Primary Progressive Aphasia Aphasia Treatment See also Further Reading Apraxia Abstract See also Further Reading Apraxia, Limb Abstract Introduction Definition and Major Features of Limb Apraxia Assessment of Limb Apraxia Types of Limb Apraxia Neural Correlates of Limb Apraxia Relationship of Limb Apraxia to Everyday Functioning Current State and Future of Apraxia Research Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Aqueduct of Sylvius Abstract See also Further Reading Arachnoid Cysts Abstract See also Further Reading Arachnoiditis Abstract Incidence Etiology Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations Radiographic Characteristics Management Conclusion See also Further Reading Arbovirus Encephalitis Abstract Introduction Togaviruses Bunyaviruses Reoviridae Flaviviruses Differential Diagnosis of Arboviral Encephalitis Treatment of Arboviral Encephalitis See also Further Reading Argyll Robertson, Douglas Abstract See also Further Reading Arsenic Abstract Introduction Regulation of Arsenic Exposure Routes of Exposure Metabolism and Elimination of Arsenic Mechanisms of Toxicity Neurological Effects Other Health Effects Diagnosis and Treatment See also Further Reading Art and the Brain Abstract Introduction Brain Injury Effects on Art Right Hemisphere Contributions to Art Left Hemisphere Contribution to Art Degenerative Disease and Creativity See also Further Reading Arteriovenous Fistulas Abstract Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas Vein of Galen Malformations Pial Arteriovenous Fistulas See also Further Reading Arteriovenous Malformations (AVM), Surgical Treatment of Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis (Lesion Formation) Natural History Clinical Presentation Decision Making Treatment Options Conclusions See also Further Reading Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) Abstract See also Further Reading Asterixis Abstract See also Further Reading Astrocytes Abstract Astroglial Histology Astroglial Development Astroglial Physiology Astrogliosis Astrocytoma and Glioblastoma Genetic Diseases of Astroglia See also Further Reading Astrocytes Abstract Definition of Astrocytes and Astroglia Morphology of Astrocytes Functions of Astroglia See also Further Reading Ataxia Abstract See also Further Reading Ataxia Telangiectasia Abstract See also Further Reading Athetosis Abstract See also Further Reading Attention Abstract Definition Anatomy and Physiology Models of Operation Deficits Involving Attentional Mechanisms See also Further Reading Attention Abstract Introduction Varieties of Attention Early Cognitive Approaches Elements of Attention Neural Substrates of Attention Clinical Disorders of Attention Clinical Assessment of Attention See also Further Reading Attentional Mechanisms Abstract Introduction Methods of Study Attentional Networks Brain States Rehabilitation Summary See also Further Reading Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Abstract Introduction Subtypes, Impairment, and Comorbidities Assessment and Diagnosis Prevalence and Developmental Course Risk and Etiological Factors Neurobiological Underpinnings Prevention and Intervention Conclusion See also Further Reading Auditory System, Central Abstract Anatomy and Physiology of the Central Auditory System Ascending Limb: Lemniscal and Extralemniscal Pathways Commissures and Chiasms Descending Limb Reflex Functions of the Central Auditory System See also Further Reading Auditory System, Peripheral Abstract Introduction Functional Physiology: Audiological Testing and Site of Lesion in the Peripheral Auditory System See also Further Reading Autism Spectrum Disorder Abstract Introduction Prevalence Etiologies Diagnostic Considerations Common Comorbid Conditions Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Autism Spectrum Disorders Abstract Introduction Diagnostic Assessment and Classification Psychiatric Workup and Comorbidity Common Medical Comorbid Conditions Psychoeducational and Behavioral Treatments Psychopharmacology Update Future Directions See also Further reading Autoimmune Encephalitis Affecting Synaptic Proteins Abstract N -Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis α -Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid Receptor Encephalitis γ -Aminobutyric Acid-B Receptor Encephalitis Leucine Rich, Glioma-Inactivated 1 Encephalitis Syndromes Associated with Antibodies to Contactin-Associated Protein-Like 2 Syndromes Associated with Antibodies to Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Anti-Glycine Receptor Encephalomyelitis See also Further Reading Autonomic Dysreflexia Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Precipitating Factors Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Autonomic Nervous System and the Heart Abstract Autonomic Intervention of the Heart Vasovagal Syncope Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome Autonomic Failure Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia Atrial and Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias and the Autonomic Nervous System See also Further Reading Autonomic Nervous System, Heart Rate and Abstract See also Further Reading Autonomic Nervous System; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Autophagy Abstract Types of Autophagy Autophagy Dysregulation in Neuronal Injury and Disease Conclusions See also Further Reading Awareness Abstract See also Further Reading Axelrod, Julius Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Axons Abstract See also Further Reading B Babinski, Joseph Francois Felix Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Babinski Sign Abstract History Pathophysiology Practicalities See also Further Reading Bacterial Abscess, Cerebral Abstract See also Further Reading Baker, Abraham (Abe) B Abstract Distinguished Career Organizational Leadership Catalyst for Growth of Neurology in the US See also Further Reading Balance Abstract See also Further Reading Balint's Syndrome Abstract Brain–Behavior Relationships in Balint's Syndrome Spatial Deficits and Simultanagnosia Spatial Deficits and Visual Integration Spatial Deficits and Visuo-Motor Integration (Optic Ataxia) Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Ballism Abstract See also Further Reading Bárány, Robert Abstract Introduction Career A Prisoner of War Wins the Nobel Prize Controversy See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Bartholow, Roberts Abstract See also Further Reading Bartonella Infections Abstract See also Further Reading Basal Ganglia Abstract Introduction Nuclear Components of the Basal Ganglia Parallel and Segregated Cortico-Basal Ganglia Loops Cellular Organization of the Basal Ganglia Neuronal Connections of the Basal Ganglia Models of Basal Ganglia Function and Dysfunction Motor and Nonmotor Functions of the Basal Ganglia See also Further Reading Basal Ganglia, Diseases of Abstract Introduction Parkinsonism Chorea Dystonia See also Further Reading Basilar Artery Thrombosis Abstract Introduction Pathology Clinical Symptoms and Signs Outcome and Treatment See also Further Reading Bastian, Henry Charlton Abstract See also Further Reading Beard, George Miller Abstract Neurasthenia Suggestion, Expectation, and Mental Therapeutics Exaggerated Startle and Jumping Frenchmen Protection of the Insane Electrotherapy See also Further Reading Békésy, Georg von Abstract Career Cochlear Mechanics and the Place Theory of Hearing Lateral Inhibition Honors and Awards See also Further Reading Bell, Charles Abstract Introduction Career The Bell–Magendie Law Differentiation of the Functions of the Trigeminal and Facial Nerves Bell's Palsy Bell's Phenomenon See also Further Reading Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo Abstract See also Further Reading Berger, Hans Abstract See also Further Reading Beri-Beri Abstract See also Further Reading Bernard, Claude Abstract Introduction Career See also Further Reading Betz Cells Abstract Introduction Neurochemistry of Betz Cells Betz Cells in Motor Neuron Disease See also Further Reading Bipolar Disorder Abstract Introduction – What is Bipolar? Classification Epidemiology Differential Diagnosis and Comorbidity Precipitants and Disease Course Treatment See also Further Reading Bladder Disorders Abstract Bladder Dysfunction in Neurological Disease See also Further Reading Blepharospasm Abstract Introduction Benign Essential Blepharospasm Hemifacial Spasm Summary See also Further Reading Blood–Brain Barrier Abstract Introduction Structural and Molecular Properties of Brain Endothelium Endothelial Transport Mechanisms Blood–Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Brain Diseases Modulators of Endothelial Permeability Blood–Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Chronic Diseases Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Boll, Franz Abstract Introduction Rhodopsin See also Further Reading Bonnet, Charles Abstract See also Further Reading Borna Disease Virus Abstract Introduction and Classification Natural Pathways for Transmission of Borna Disease Virus Studies of Borna Disease Virus and Human Disease Borna Disease Virus Tropism Effects of Borna Disease Virus on Neurochemical and Central Nervous System Signaling Pathways Borna Disease Virus Infection of Neonatal Rats Borna Disease Virus Effects on Signaling Pathways Prevention and Treatment of Borna Disease Virus See also Further Reading Botulism Abstract Introduction Botulinum Neurotoxin Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Testing Treatment See also Further Reading Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Abstract Introduction Clinical Signs Pathology Diagnosis Epidemiology Geographical Distribution of BSE Control of BSE Host Range Infectivity of Cattle Tissues Strain Typing of the BSE and Related Agents Conclusion See also Further Reading Brachial Plexopathies Abstract Introduction Anatomy Pathology and Pathophysiology Diagnosis Specific Brachial Plexus Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Brain Anatomy Abstract See also Further Reading Brain Banking Abstract Introduction Obtaining Human Brain Samples for Research Registration, Preparation, and Storage of Brain Tissue and Related Samples Possibilities, Limitations, and Putative Pitfalls Inherent in the Study of Postmortem Human Brain Samples Cession of Samples for Research Management and Legal and Ethical Aspects See also Further Reading Brain Death Abstract Introduction and Definition Clinical Criteria Qualifications of Physicians to Declare Brain Death Exclusionary Guidelines and Ancillary Tests Movements After Brain Death See also Further Reading Brain Development, Normal Postnatal Abstract Introduction Primitive Reflexes Motor System Sensory System See also Further Reading Brain Evolution Abstract Introduction From Reptiles to Mammals Brain Evolution in Primates See also Further Reading Brain Herniation; Surgical Management Abstract See also Further Reading Brain Imaging, Physiological Abstract See also Further Reading Brain Injury, Traumatic: Epidemiological Issues Abstract Introduction Traumatic Brain Injury Definitions Incidence of Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States Civilian Population External Causes and Correlates of Traumatic Brain Injury in the Civilian Population Traumatic Brain Injury in Selected Populations Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury Limitations and Challenges of Traumatic Brain Injury Epidemiological Research Conclusion Disclaimer See also Further Reading Brain Ischemic Edema Abstract Introduction Neuroinflammatory Response and Blood–Brain Barrier Opening Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Diagnosis of Brain Edema Treatment of Brain Edema See also Further Reading Brain Mapping and Quantitative Electroencephalogram Abstract Introduction Techniques Problems Clinical Settings Operating Room and Intensive Care Unit Monitoring Dementia and Encephalopathy Other Clinical Settings Concluding Comments See also Further Reading Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs) Abstract Introduction Recording Techniques Interpretation of Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials Clinical Applications See also Further Reading Brainstem Syndromes Abstract Introduction Vascular Supply of the Medulla Medullary Syndromes Vascular Supply of the Pons Pontine Syndromes Vascular Supply of the Mesencephalon Mesencephalic Syndromes See also Further Reading Brain Stimulation Therapy in Psychiatry Abstract Brain Stimulation Treatments in Psychiatry See also Further Reading Brain Trauma, Contrecoup Abstract See also Further Reading Brain Trauma: Intensive Care Unit Management Abstract Background and Epidemiology Grading Systems Imaging Intensive Care Unit Management Resuscitation Targets Intracranial Pressure Management Conclusions See also Further Reading Relevant Website Brain Tumors; Biology Abstract Introduction Diffuse Gliomas Medulloblastomas See also Further Reading Brain Tumors; Clinical Aspects Abstract Epidemiology History and Physical Examination Medical Management Surgical Management Prognostic Significance of Surgery See also Further Reading Brain Tumors; Genetics Abstract Introduction Sporadic Brain Tumors Brain Tumors and Inherited Tumor Syndromes Knudson's Two-Hit Model and Loss of Heterozygosity See also Further Reading Breath-Holding Spells Abstract Introduction Clinical Description Epidemiology Natural History Long-Term Outcome Pathophysiology Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Breuer, Josef Abstract Career Mach–Breuer Theory of Endolymphatic Shift The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: ‘Anna O.’ and Breuer's ‘Talking Cure’ See also Further Reading Broca, Paul Abstract From Anthropology to Aphemia The Limbic Lobe Broca's Neurological Legacy See also Further Reading Broca's Area Abstract Introduction Historical Review Broca's Aphasia Neural Network Models of Language Anatomy of Broca's Area Asymmetries of Broca's Area See also Further Reading Brodmann, Korbinian Abstract See also Further Reading Brodmann's Areas Abstract Introduction Brodmann's Map The Ambivalent Value of Brodmann's Map as a Guide to Functional Units in the Human Cerebral Cortex “In Vivo Brodmann Mapping” with High-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging See also Further Reading Brown, Alexander Crum Abstract Introduction Career Diagrammatic Representation of Chemical Compounds Structure–Activity Relationships Vestibular Physiology See also Further Reading Brown-Séquard, Charles Edouard Abstract See also Further Reading Brown-Séquard's Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Brudziński, Józef Abstract See also Further Reading Brudzinski's Sign Abstract See also Further Reading Burn Encephalopathy Abstract Definition Frequency Pathogenesis Management See also Further Reading Bypass Surgery Abstract See also Further Reading C CADASIL Abstract Cerebral Autosomal-Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy Clinical Presentation Pathology Neuroimaging Genetics Treatment See also Further Reading Cairns, Hugh Abstract Introduction Early Career Nuffield Institute for Medical Research at Oxford Motorcycle Helmets Combined Services Military Hospital Clinical Trials of Penicillin in War Casualties The ‘Good Doctor’ See also Further Reading Calcium Abstract Extracellular Calcium Intracellular Calcium See also Further Reading Callosotomy Abstract See also Further Reading Canavan's Disease Abstract Clinical Presentation Neuroimaging Neuropathology Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Genetics Treatment See also Further Reading Cannon, Walter Bradford Abstract Career Use of Animals in Scientific Research Mechanical and Reflex Factors in Digestion The Fight-or-Flight Response Homeostasis Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion Noradrenaline as a Neurotransmitter – a Missed Opportunity Cannon's Law of Denervation (Denervation Supersensitivity) Honors and Awards See also Further Reading Capacity and Consent Abstract Criteria for Capacity Applying the Criteria in Context Working with the Incapacitated Patient See also Further Reading Capillary Telangiectasia Abstract See also Further Reading Carbon Dioxide Narcosis Abstract Definition Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Features Investigations See also Further Reading Cardiac Arrest Resuscitation Abstract Introduction Epidemiology of Cardiac Arrest Pathophysiology of Cardiac Arrest Treatment of Cardiac Arrest Prognosis Conclusion See also Further Reading Cardiac Drugs Abstract Digoxin Antihypertensives Antiarrhythmics Statins Cyclosporine See also Further Reading Cardiovascular Regulation Abstract Introduction Exercise Pathophysiology Recent Advances See also Further Reading Carnitine Deficiency Abstract Introduction Primary Carnitine Deficiency Secondary Carnitine Deficiency Carnitine Deficiency in Epilepsy See also Further Reading Carotid Artery Abstract Introduction Anatomy Embryology Comparative Functional Anatomy Disease and Abnormal Conditions of the Carotid Artery See also Further Reading Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Abstract Anatomy Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Physical Findings Electrophysiological Testing Other Diagnostic Tests Differential Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Casál, Gaspar Abstract See also Further Reading Castle, William Abstract See also Further Reading Cataplexy Abstract See also Further Reading Caton, Richard Abstract See also Further Reading Cauda Equina Abstract See also Further Reading Cauda Equina Syndrome and Neurogenic Claudication Abstract See also Further Reading Caudate Nucleus Abstract Introduction Neuronal Organization and Neurochemistry Anatomic Connections of the Caudate Nucleus Metabolic Properties and Disease Susceptibilities Clinical Consequences of Caudate Nucleus Lesions See also Further Reading Cavernous Malformations Abstract Introduction Pathology Epidemiology Natural History Diagnosis Clinical Presentation Management Surgical Technique Surgical Outcomes Conclusions See also Further Reading Cavernous Sinus Disorders Abstract Clinical Findings See also Further Reading Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) Abstract Integrins Ig-CAMs Cadherins Selectins See also Further Reading Cell and Tissue Culture Abstract Introduction Cell Lines Versus Primary Cells Adult Human Brain Cell Culture Inducible Pluripotent Stem Cells and Direct Production of Neurons From Peripheral Cells Neural Stem Cell Cultures Cell Characterization Using Cell Type-Specific Markers Methods of Manipulating Cells In Vitro Methods of Interrogating Brain Cells in Culture Future Directions and Challenges See also Further Reading Cell Death Abstract Characteristics of Programmed Cell Death Classic Apoptosis Pathways Programmed Cell Death in Neurological Diseases Necrotic Cell Death in Neurological Disorders See also Further Reading Central Nervous System, Overview Abstract Introduction Neurogenesis Spinal Cord Medulla Oblongata Pons and Cerebellum Midbrain Thalamus Cerebral Hemisphere See also Further Reading Cerebellar Disorders Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Cerebellum Abstract Introduction History Gross Anatomy Cytoarchitecture Inputs Connectivity Development Clinical Synaptic Plasticity Theories of Cerebellar Function See also Further Reading Cerebral Arteries Abstract Introduction Internal Carotid Artery Circle of Willis Middle Cerebral Artery Anterior Cerebral Artery Posterior Cerebral Artery Vertebral Artery Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Basilar Artery Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Superior Cerebellar Artery Posterior Cerebral Artery Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Cerebral Blood Flow, Measurement of Abstract See also Further Reading Cerebral Cortex Abstract Introduction Cortical Architecture Cortical Connections See also Further Reading Cerebral Edema Abstract See also Further Reading Cerebral Hemispheric Interactions Abstract Introduction The Split-Brain Studies Brain Imaging Individual Differences See also Further Reading Cerebral Malformations, Surgical Treatment of Abstract Introduction Cortical Dysplasia Surgical Treatment for Epilepsy Caused by Cortical Dysplasia Anomalies of the Craniocervical Junction Cerebral Vascular Malformations Arteriovenous Malformations Cerebral Cavernous Malformations See also Further Reading Cerebral Metabolism and Blood Flow Abstract See also Further Reading Cerebral Microcirculation Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Cerebral Palsy Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Spastic Disorders Extrapyramidal Disorders Hypotonic Disorders Ataxic Disorders Mixed Forms Treatment See also Further Reading Cerebral Protection Abstract Cerebral Protection The Ischemic Penumbra The Time Window The Ischemic Cascade Hypothermia Stem Cells Conclusion See also Further Reading Cerebral Vasculitis Abstract Introduction Isolated Central Nervous System Vasculitis Central Nervous System Vasculitis Associated with other Disorders See also Further Reading Cerebral Vasospasm, Treatment of Abstract Introduction Hypervolemia Hypertension Hemodilution Endovascular Therapy Conclusion See also Further Reading Cerebral Veins and Venous Sinuses Abstract Introduction Cerebral Veins Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Cerebral Venous Thrombosis Abstract Anatomy of the Cerebral Venous System Pathophysiology Etiology and Pathogenesis Clinical Presentation Diagnosis Outcome Treatment See also Further Reading Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Pressure Change and Headaches Abstract Introduction Headache Secondary to Low Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Postlumbar Puncture Headache Spontaneous Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks Cerebrospinal Fluid Fistulas and Other Causes of Cerebrospinal Fluid Volume Depletion Headache Secondary to High Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Intracranial Mass Lesions Hydrocephalus Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension See also Further Reading Cerebrospinal Fluid Rhinorrhea Abstract Introduction Etiologies and Anatomical Considerations Classification Diagnosis and Evaluation Treatment Summary See also Further Reading Cerebrovascular Disease Abstract Introduction Vascular Cognitive Impairment Defined The Clinical Spectrum of Cerebrovascular Disease Imaging of Vascular Cognitive Impairment Impact of Cerebrovascular Disease on Cognition in Normal Individuals Cerebrovascular Disease in Mild Cognitive Impairment Vascular Risk Factors and Incident Dementia Interaction of Cerebrovascular and Alzheimer's Disease Magnetic Resonance Imaging Measures of Cerebrovascular Disease and Incident Dementia Conclusion See also Further Reading Cervical Dystonia Abstract Introduction Clinical Manifestations Etiology Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Cervical Spine Stabilization Abstract Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment Craniovertebral Instability Atlantoaxial Instability Subaxial Spine Fixation Conclusion See also Further Reading Cervical Spine Stabilization; Technical Aspects Abstract Introduction Anterior Approach Posterior Approach Complications Conclusion See also Further Reading Cervicogenic Headache Abstract Introduction Diagnostic Criteria of Cervicogenic Headache Musculoskeletal Impairments of the Cervical Spine Treatment of Cervicogenic Headache Conclusion See also Further Reading Channelopathies; Clinical Manifestations Abstract Introduction The Nondystrophic Myotonias The Chloride Channelopathies The Sodium Channelopathies Periodic Paralyses How do Mutations of Different Channels Result in Similar Phenotypes? Conclusion Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Channelopathies; Genetics Abstract See also Further Reading Charcot, Jean-Martin Abstract Introduction Charcot's Neurological Work The Anatomoclinical Method Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Charcot's Disease Other Scientific Contributions Charcot as Teacher Charcot, the Man See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Charcot–Marie–Tooth Disease Abstract Introduction Classification De-/dysmyelinating Charcot–Marie–Tooth Disease with Autosomal Dominant Inheritance Diagnosis Management Summary Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Chemokines Abstract Introduction The Chemokine Superfamily and Their Receptors Chemokines and Their Receptors in the Nervous System under Normal Conditions Chemokines in the Nervous System During Pathological States Conclusion See also Further Reading Chiari Malformations Abstract Types of Chiari Malformations Origin of Chiari Malformations Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Imaging Treatment See also Further Reading Chickpea Intoxication Abstract See also Further Reading Child Abuse; Head Injuries Abstract Introduction Definitions Abusive Head Injuries Epidemiology Clinical Manifestations Intracranial Injuries Legal Responsibilities Differential Diagnosis See also Further Reading Childhood Brain Tumors Abstract Epidemiology Challenges in Pediatric Neuro-Oncology Long-Term Effects Low-Grade Gliomas High-Grade Gliomas Brainstem Gliomas Medulloblastoma Other Supratentorial Primitive Neuroectodermal Tumors Ependymoma Craniopharyngioma Germ Cell Tumors Conclusion See also Further Reading Child Neurology, History of Abstract Introduction American Child Neurology European/Asian Child Neurology Conclusion See also Further Reading Chorea Abstract Inherited Choreas Structural Causes of Chorea Miscellaneous Choreas See also Further Reading Choreoathetosis Abstract See also Further Reading Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Diagnostic Criteria Additional Evaluation Pathophysiology and Nerve Biopsy Findings Treatment Clinical Course Summary See also Further Reading Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Programs, Interdisciplinary Abstract Introduction Background Interdisciplinary Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Program Treatment Overview Interdisciplinary Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Program Treatment Strategies Interdisciplinary Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Program Treatment Results Interdisciplinary Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Program Rise and Fall of Interdisciplinary Chronic Pain Rehabilitation Programs See also Further Reading Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia (CPEO) Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation and Differential Diagnosis Genetics Management See also Further Reading Cingulotomy Abstract Indications Technique Alternative Surgical Options Ethical Considerations See also Further Reading Circle of Willis Abstract Anatomy of the Circle of Willis Imaging of the Circle of Willis Conclusion See also Further Reading Clonus Abstract See also Further Reading Coagulopathies and Stroke Abstract Introduction Inherited Thrombophilias Inherited Thrombophilias and Ischemic Stroke Antiphospholipid Antibodies Patent Foramen Ovale and Hypercoagulability Testing for Hypercoagulable States Treatment Recommendations for Further Research Summary See also Further Reading Cocaine Abstract Background Mechanism of Action Clinical Effects of Cocaine Testing Management See also Further Reading Cognition, Social Abstract Introduction Perception and Recognition of Social Information Evaluation of the Personal Relevance of Social Information Social Knowledge: Putting Social Information in Context Social Information Processing Behavioral Response Selection and Regulation Conclusion See also Further Reading Cognition, Spatial Abstract Introduction Visual Perceptual Processing Ventral and Dorsal Visual Processing Streams Top-Down Modulation of Visual Processing The Critical Role of the Parietal Cortex in Spatial Cognition Egocentric and Allocentric Navigation Conclusion See also Further Reading Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Abstract Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Background Methods Structure Conclusion See also Further Reading Relevant Website Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy Abstract Introduction General Cognitive Rehabilitation Attention Memory Executive Functions Spatial Perception Conclusion See also Further Reading Collins, Joseph Abstract Onuf and Collins on the Sympathetic Nervous System The Neurological Institute of New York Other Contributions See also Further Reading Coma Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Clinical Features Differential Diagnosis Management See also Further Reading Coma, Hyperosmolar Abstract Introduction Hypernatremic Encephalopathy Hyperglycemia See also Further Reading Coma, Postoperative Abstract Definition Risk Factors Pathogenesis Differential Diagnosis Investigations and Management See also Further Reading Coma Scales Abstract Introduction Specific Scales See also Further Reading Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) Abstract Clinical Presentation Epidemiology Genetics Pathophysiology Psychological Factors Treatment Prognosis See also Further Reading Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, Treatment of Abstract Historical Perspective Nomenclature Pathophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Computational Neuroscience Abstract Models of the Single Neuron Artificial Neural Networks Oscillations Conclusions See also Further Reading Computed Tomography Abstract Introduction Production of Images Special Techniques Clinical Applications of Computed Tomography Radiation Dose Consideration See also Further Reading Concussion Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Postconcussion Syndrome Consequences of Repeated Concussions Management See also Further Reading Conduction Block Abstract Conduction Block See also Further Reading Consciousness Abstract Introduction Wakefulness Awareness See also Further Reading Conus Medullaris Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Cordotomy Abstract See also Further Reading Corning, James Leonard Abstract Introduction Career Instrumented Carotid Compression and Vagal Nerve Stimulation Development of Local and Spinal Anesthesia See also Further Reading Corpus Callosum Abstract Introduction Development Role in Lateralization of Function Models of Intracerebral Orchestration See also Further Reading Corpus Striatum Abstract Introduction Projection Pathways Corticostriatal Circuitry Parkinson's Disease Huntington's Disease See also Further Reading Cortical Histogenesis Abstract Introduction Neuronal Proliferation Neuronal Migration Histogenetic Gradients Disorders of Neuronal Proliferation and Migration Laminar and Columnar Organization Neurite and Synaptic Development Regressive Events: Cell Death and Elimination of Synapses Disorders of Laminar and Synaptic Organization Glial Development and its Disorders Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Corticospinal/Corticobulbar Tracts Abstract See also Further Reading Cough and Exertional Headache, Primary Abstract Primary Cough Headache Primary Exertional Headache See also Further Reading Cramps, Muscle Abstract Introduction Definitions Clinical Characteristics Physiological Features Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Cranial Nerve Palsies, Surgery Abstract See also Further Reading Craniectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Craniofacial Neuralgia Abstract Introduction Myofascial Pain Syndrome Sensitization in Musculoskeletal Pain Syndromes Mechanism-Based Classification of Musculoskeletal Pain Treatment of Myofascial Component in Musculoskeletal Pain Conclusions See also Further Reading Craniosynostosis Abstract Introduction History Etiology and Pathology Craniofacial Syndromes Treatment Outcomes See also Further Reading Craniotomy Abstract See also Further Reading Creutzfeldt, Hans Abstract See also Further Reading Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease (CJD) Abstract Introduction Sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Laboratory Aids to Diagnosis Acquired Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Treatment See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Cushing, Harvey Abstract Outline of Cushing's Life Cushing as Surgeon and Scientist Cushing as Teacher and Social Organizer See also Further Reading Cushing's Disease Abstract History and Clinical Presentation Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation Treatment and Outcomes See also Further Reading Relevant Website Cushing's Syndrome Abstract Definition and Manifestations Etiologies and Pathology Evaluation and Tumor Localization Treatment See also Further Reading Relevant Website Cyanides Abstract Introduction Cyanide Exposure Mechanism of Action Signs and Symptoms Treatment See also Further Reading Cytokines Abstract Introduction Interleukins Conclusions See also Further Reading D Dale, Henry Hallett Abstract See also Further Reading Dalton, John Abstract See also Further Reading Dana, Charles Loomis Abstract Introduction Career Was Guiteau Insane? Familial Essential Tremor Posterior Rhizotomy (Dana's Operation) The Putnam–Dana Syndrome (Subacute Combined Degeneration) Dana's Text-book of Nervous Diseases (1892) Literature, History, and the Charaka Club Early Neurology in the US: The 1927 Hughlings Jackson Address See also Further Reading Dandy–Walker Syndrome Abstract Introduction Embryogenesis Etiology Recurrence Risk in Siblings Prevalence and Clinical Presentation Pathological Findings Associated Malformations Neuroradiological Evaluation Differential Diagnosis Prenatal Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis and Outcome See also Further Reading Dandy, Walter Edward Abstract See also Further Reading Dax, Marc Abstract See also Further Reading Decerebrate Rigidity Abstract See also Further Reading Decorticate Rigidity Abstract See also Further Reading Decortication Abstract See also Further Reading Dedlow, George Abstract See also Further Reading Deep Brain Stimulation Abstract Parkinson's Disease Tremor and Dystonia Complications Future Prospects of Deep Brain Stimulation Conclusion See also Further Reading Déjerine, Jules Abstract See also Further Reading Déjerine-Klumpke, Augusta Abstract See also Further Reading Delirium (Acute Confusional State) Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Pathophysiology of Delirium Diagnosis and Management Prognosis See also Further Reading Delusions Abstract Introduction Types of Delusions Clinical Syndromes Associated with Delusions Pathophysiology of Delusions Models of Delusion Formation Illuminate Normal Brain Processes Treatment of Delusions See also Further Reading Dementia Abstract Epidemiology Common Pathological Pathways Evaluation of a Dementia Patient Diagnostic Issues Primary Degenerative Dementias Dementias Associated with Movement Disorders Treatable Causes of Dementia See also Further Reading Dendrites Abstract See also Further Reading Denervation Abstract Motor Unit Diagnosis of Muscle Denervation See also Further Reading Denny-Brown, Derek Abstract See also Further Reading Depression and Dysthymia Abstract Introduction History and Epidemiology Diagnosis of Depression by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision Comorbidity Differential Diagnosis Theoretical Etiologies of Depression Treatment See also Further Reading Depression and Psychosis, Postpartum Abstract Perinatal Major Depressive Disorder Postpartum Psychosis See also Further Reading Dercum, Francis Abstract Introduction Career President Woodrow Wilson's Stroke See also Further Reading Descartes, René Abstract Introduction Career Mind and Brain Interaction (Cartesian Dualism) The Mechanism of the Body Reflex Behavior See also Further Reading Diabetes Insipidus Abstract See also Further Reading Diabetes Mellitus Abstract Introduction Acute Neurological Disorders Associated with Diabetes Mellitus Chronic Neurological Disorders Associated with Diabetes Mellitus See also Further Reading Diaschisis Abstract Diaschisis See also Further Reading Diastematomyelia Abstract See also Further Reading Diffuse Axonal Injury Abstract See also Further Reading Dioxins Abstract See also Further Reading Diplopia and Strabismus Abstract Introduction Optical Diplopia Strabismic Diplopia See also Further Reading Disconnection Syndromes Abstract Introduction Basic Principles History Major Disconnection Syndromes Conclusion See also Further Reading Disk Arthroplasty Abstract See also Further Reading Diskectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Dissection, Arterial Abstract See also Further Reading Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation Abstract Definition Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations from Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation Diagnosis of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation Management See also Further Reading Domoic Acid Abstract See also Further Reading Dopamine Abstract See also Further Reading Dorsal Root Ganglion Abstract Gross Anatomy Histology Connections Development Somatotopy Clinical Aspects Functional Aspects See also Further Reading Down's Syndrome Abstract Introduction Diagnosis Physical Features Cognitive Deficits Hypotonia, Tactility, and Seizures Congenital Heart Disease Gut Disease Immune and Endocrine Systems Alzheimer's Disease Conclusion See also Further Reading Dreaming Abstract Definitions and Historical Roots The Meaning and Function of Dreaming Rapid Eye Movement and Dreams in Major Depression Nightmares and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Conclusion See also Further Reading Drowsiness Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading du Bois-Reymond, Emil Abstract See also Further Reading Duchenne, Guillaume Abstract Electrodiagnosis and Electrotherapeutics Duchenne Dystrophy Medical Photography Other Contributions See also Further Reading Dura Mater Abstract Introduction Gross Anatomy of the Dura Cranial Dura Microanatomy Vascular Anatomy Neuronal Anatomy Conclusion See also Further Reading Dysarthria Abstract Evaluation of the Dysarthric Patient Treatment of the Dysarthric Patient See also Further Reading Dysequilibrium Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Dyskinesias Abstract See also Further Reading Dyslexia, Developmental Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Etiology Neuropsychology Neural Substrates Treatment See also Further Reading Dystonia Abstract See also Further Reading Dystrophin and Dystrophin-Associated Proteins Abstract Introduction Dystrophin Dystrophin-Associated Proteins See also Further Reading E Eating Disorders Abstract Introduction Diagnosis Physiological Complications Treatment Outcome See also Further Reading Eccles, John Abstract Introduction Career See also Further Reading Economo, Constantin von Abstract Introduction Career Encephalitis Lethargica Cytoarchitectonics See also Further Reading Ecstasy Abstract History Use and Epidemiology Pharmacology Effects in Humans Toxicity and Related Deaths Management of ‘Ecstasy’-Related Emergencies and Addiction See also Further Reading Edinger, Ludwig Abstract See also Further Reading Ehrlichiosis Abstract See also Further Reading Ehrlich, Paul Abstract Introduction Career See also Further Reading Eijkman, Christiaan Abstract Introduction Early Career ‘Polyneuritic’ Chickens in Java Beri-beri in Java Prisons Later Career See also Further Reading Electrocorticogram (ECOG) Abstract Electrocorticogram Recording Techniques Advantages and Limitations Conclusion See also Further Reading Electroencephalogram (EEG) Abstract See also Further Reading Electroencephalographic Spikes and Sharp Waves Abstract Definitions and Descriptions Mechanisms Clincal Correlations See also Further Reading Electromyography (EMG) Abstract Electromyography EDX Findings with Various Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Electronystagmogram (ENG) Abstract See also Further Reading Electroretinogram (ERG) Abstract See also Further Reading Electrostimulation Abstract Introduction Diagnostic Electrostimulation Deep Brain Stimulation Vagal Nerve Stimulation Spinal Cord Stimulation Functional Electrical Stimulation See also Further Reading Elevated Intracranial Pressure, Management of Abstract Introduction Physiology Diagnosis and Monitoring Management Summary See also Further Reading Embolism, Cardiac and Aortic Abstract Introduction Cardiac Sources of Embolism Aortic Arch Atheroma Conclusion See also Further Reading Embolization, Therapeutic, Surgical Abstract Introduction Anesthesia General Procedure Neuromonitoring Anticoagulation Aneurysm AVMs Fistula Tumor Complications See also Further Reading Emotion, Neural Mechanisms of Abstract Introduction Brain Dysfunction and Emotions Emotions and the Selection of Behaviors Conclusions See also Further Reading Emotions Abstract Emotions A Historical Perspective What are Emotions? A Process Model of Emotion Emotions: Functions and Types Neuroanatomy of Emotion Disorders of Emotion See also Further Reading Encephalitis/Leukoencephalitis, Acute Hemorrhagic Abstract Definition Clinical Features Investigations Pathology Therapy See also Further Reading Encephalitis, Viral Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis Acute Viral Encephalitis Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Treatment and Prevention See also Further Reading Encephalomyelitis, Acute Disseminated Abstract Definition Epidemiology Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Features Investigations Differential Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis See also Further Reading Encephalomyopathies, Mitochondrial Abstract Introduction Disorders due to Defects of Mitochondrial Deoxyribonucleic Acid Disorders due to Defects of Nuclear Deoxyribonucleic Acid Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Encephalopathy, Anoxic–Ischemic Abstract Introduction Pathology and Pathogenesis Management Prognostic Determination for Anoxic–Ischemic Encephalopathy Complications of Anoxic–Ischemic Encephalopathy See also Further Reading Enders, John Franklin Abstract Career Cultivation of Poliovirus Later Career and Recognition See also Further Reading Endocannabinoids Abstract Introduction Synthesis and Degradation Homeostatic Function Functions during Pathological Conditions and Potential CB-Based Treatment Strategies Potential for Cannabinoid-Based Pharmacotherapies for Other Central Nervous System Disorders See also Further Reading Endonasal Surgery, Expanded Abstract Surgical Technique Complications of Expanded Endonasal Surgery What to Expect in the Hospital and After Discharge? See also Further Reading Endoscopic Microsurgery Abstract Introduction History Optical Properties of Surgical Microscopes and Endoscopes Instruments for Endoscope-Assisted Microneurosurgery Clinical Application of Endoscope-Assisted Microneurosurgery Conclusion See also Further Reading Endovascular Therapy Abstract Introduction Principles Occlusive Vascular Disease Hemorrhagic Vascular Disease See also Further Reading Endovascular Treatment of Aneurysms Abstract Indications for Endovascular Treatment Coils Stents Liquid Embolic Agents Endovascular Approach to Different Aneurysms Conclusion See also Further Reading Endozepines and Coma Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Clinical Features Pathophysiology Controversy See also Further Reading Enteroviruses Abstract Overview Molecular Virology Epidemiology Neuropathogenesis Clinical Features of Central Nervous System Infections Diagnosis Treatment and Prevention See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Ependyma Abstract See also Further Reading Epidemiology, Overview Abstract Introduction Case Ascertainment Population-Based Rates Risk Basic Study Designs New Directions See also Further Reading Epidermal Nerve Fibers Abstract Historical Notes Skin Structure and Innervation Skin Biopsy Technique Quantification of Epidermal Nerve Fibers Epidermal Nerve Fiber in Peripheral Neuropathies Regeneration of Epidermal Nerve Fibers Epidermal Nerve Fibers and Neuropathic Pain See also Further Reading Epidural Empyema, Cranial Epilepsy; Antiepileptic Drug Profiles Abstract Carbamazepine (Tegretol) Clobazam (Onfi, Frisium) Ethosuximide (Zarontin) Ezogabine (Potiga)/Retigabine (Trobalt) Felbamate (Felbatol) Gabapentin (Neurontin) Lacosamide (Vimpat) Lamotrigine (Lamictal) Levetiracetam (Keppra) Oxcarbazepine (Trileptal) Phenobarbital Phenytoin (Dilantin) Pregabalin (Lyrica) Primidone (Mysoline) Rufinamide (Banzel) Tiagabine (Gabitril) Topiramate (Topamax) Valproate (Depakote/Depakene) Vigabatrin (Sabril) Zonisamide (Zonegran) See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Basic Mechanisms Abstract Introduction Mechanisms of Seizure Generation Mechanisms Underlying Epileptogenesis Pharmacoresistance See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Comorbidity Abstract Epilepsy and Cardiac Disease Seizures and Renal Disease Hepatic Disease and Epilepsy Seizures Associated with Systemic Cancer Seizures Due to Endocrine or Metabolic Disorders Seizures Associated with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Other Medical Disorders See also Further Reading Epilepsy, Diagnosis of Abstract See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Drug Treatment Principles Abstract Efficacy Adverse Effects Pharmacokinetics Antiepileptic Drug Selection Treatment Antiepileptic Drug Monitoring See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Epidemiology Abstract Incidence Cumulative Incidence Gender Prevalence Risk Factors for Epilepsy Conclusion See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Experimental Models Abstract Introduction Definitions and Methods In Vitro Models In Vivo Models Computational Models Conclusion See also Further Reading Epilepsy, Gender Issues and Abstract Introduction Effects of Hormones on Seizure Vulnerability Fertility and How Seizures Affect Reproductive Function Pregnancy and Epilepsy Family Planning See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Genetics Abstract Introduction Genetics of Epilepsy Syndromes Without Structural or Metabolic Etiology Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsies with Complex Inheritance Genetics of Symptomatic Epilepsies Malformations of Cortical Development Inherited Metabolic Disorders Chromosomal Abnormalities Genetic Counseling Future Perspectives See also Further Reading Epilepsy, Invasive Monitoring for Abstract See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Overview Abstract Historical Introduction Health Burden Basic Concepts Differential Diagnosis Classification of Epileptic Seizures Classification of the Epilepsies Treatment See also Further Reading Epilepsy Pathology Abstract Introduction Effects of Seizures on the Brain Postmortem Examination in Epilepsy Surgical Neuropathology of Epilepsy Progressive Myoclonic Epilepsies See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Precipitating Factors Abstract Seizure Precipitants in the Absence of Epilepsy Common Seizure Precipitants in Epilepsy Uncommon Seizure Precipitants in Epilepsy See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Prognosis Abstract Introduction Seizure Remission Mortality See also Further Reading Epilepsy, Psychiatric Comorbidities of Abstract Introduction Epidemiologic and Clinical Aspects Bidirectional Relations Between Epilepsy and Psychiatric Disorders The Impact of Psychiatric Comorbidities in the Management of Seizure Disorders Concluding Remarks See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Risk Factors Abstract General Distribution of Causes of Epilepsy in Clinical/Epidemiological Studies Classic Risk Factors Progressive Disease as a Risk Factor Other Risk Factors Special Situations Conclusion See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Social Consequences Abstract Introduction The Concept of Epilepsy Epilepsy in Children and Adolescents Leisure Epilepsy in Adults Risks Epilepsy in the Elderly Women with Epilepsy Quality of Life and Treatment Stigma and Attitudes Conclusion See also Further Reading Epilepsy; Surgery Abstract Rationale Evaluation for Candidacy Candidacy Diagnoses Surgical Techniques See also Further Reading Relevant Website Epilepsy; Temporal Lobe Abstract Introduction Epileptic Seizures and Syndromes of the Temporal Lobe Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Lateral Neocortical Temporal Lobe Seizures See also Further Reading Epilepsy Treatment Strategies Abstract Medical Treatments Other Treatments See also Further Reading Epileptic Seizures Abstract The Epilepsies Epileptic Seizures Seizure Classification Focal Seizures Generalized Seizures See also Further Reading Epileptic Syndromes and Diseases Abstract Introduction Epileptic Syndrome Epileptic Diseases Diseases Frequently Associated with Epileptic Seizures or Syndromes Epileptic Encephalopathies Classification of Epileptic Syndromes and Diseases Topographic Symptomatic (or Probably Symptomatic) Epilepsies Epilepsies with Seizures Precipitated by Specific Modes of Activation Epilepsies with Seizures Activated by Fever Epileptic Encephalopathies Classification of Diseases Frequently Associated with Epileptic Seizures or Syndromes See also Further Reading Epileptogenesis Abstract Introduction Animal Models of Epileptogenesis Neuronal Injury Gliosis Neurogenesis Blood–Brain Barrier Dysfunction and Inflammation Axonal and Dendritic Plasticity Channelopathy Epigenetic Mechanisms Antiepileptogenesis See also Further Reading Episodic Ataxias Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis Pathology Clinical Presentations Diagnosis and Imaging Viral Studies Clinical Management See also Further Reading Erb, Wilhelm Heinrich Abstract Career Electrodiagnosis and Neuromuscular Disorders Description of the Knee Jerk and a Proposed Reflex Mechanism Association of Tabes Dorsalis with History of Syphilis See also Further Reading Erection, Penile; Sleep-Related Abstract See also Further Reading Erlanger, Joseph Abstract Introduction Early Career The Nerve Action Potential Honors and Awards See also Further Reading Essential Tremor Abstract See also Further Reading Ethanol Abstract See also Further Reading Ethical Issues Abstract Introduction Standard Definitions of Ethical Principles and Terms Clinical Scenarios and Ethical Reasoning Conclusions See also Further Reading Euler, Ulf von Abstract Introduction Career Substance P Prostaglandin Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) von Euler–Liljestrand Mechanism The Nobel Committee and the 1970 Nobel Prize See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) Abstract Clinical Applications See also Further Reading Evoked Potentials Abstract Introduction Types of Evoked Potentials Clinical Applications Sources and Signal Averaging Interpretation See also Further Reading Ewald, J Richard Abstract See also Further Reading Excessive Daytime Sleepiness Abstract See also Further Reading Executive Function Abstract Introduction Attention Set Shifting Fluency Inhibition Planning, Problem Solving, and Abstract Reasoning Self-Monitoring See also Further Reading Executive Function Abstract Introduction Conceptualization of Executive Function Assessment of Executive Dysfunction Rehabilitation of Executive Dysfunction See also Further Reading Eyelids Abstract See also Further Reading Eye Movement Recording Abstract Introduction Electrooculogram Infrared Reflectance Oculography Video Oculography Magnetic Scleral Search Coil Technology See also Further Reading Eye Movements; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Eye Movements; Saccades Abstract Functions and Characteristics of Saccades Saccadic Pathways Abnormal Saccades See also Further Reading Eye Movements; Smooth Pursuit Abstract Purposes and Properties of Smooth Pursuit Cerebellar Control of Smooth Pursuit Brainstem Mechanisms of Smooth Pursuit Vertical Smooth Pursuit Acknowledgements See also Further Reading Eye Movements; Vergence Abstract Introduction Neurology of Vergence Dynamic and Static Aspects of Vergence See also Further Reading F Fabry's Disease Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis Diagnosis Management See also Further Reading Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII) Abstract Introduction The Facial Nerve (Motor Division) The Nervus Intermedius Vascular Supply of the Seventh Cranial Nerve Bell's Palsy See also Further Reading Falls and Drops Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Familial Dysautonomia Abstract Introduction Genetics Neuropathology Pathophysiology Clinical Features and Management Neurological Features Ophthalmological Problems Gastrointestinal Dysfunction Respiratory Insufficiency Cardiovascular Abnormalities Renal Problems Orthopedical Problems Prognosis and Future Treatments See also Further Reading Fasciculations Abstract See also Further Reading Fatigue Abstract Overview and Perspectives Weakness Versus Fatigue Assessment of Fatigue: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Consequences Central Fatigue Peripheral Fatigue Evaluation of Muscle Fatigability in Health and Disease Fatigue in Neurological Disorders Fatigue in Central Nervous System Disorders Fatigue in Peripheral Nervous System Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Febrile Seizures Abstract See also Further Reading Femoral Nerves Abstract Introduction Femoral Neuropathy See also Further Reading Ferrier, David Abstract See also Further Reading Fibromyalgia Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Pathophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Fibular (Peroneal) Nerve Abstract Anatomy Fibular Mononeuropathy at the Fibular Neck Fibular Mononeuropathy in the Upper Thigh (Sciatic Mononeuropathy Affecting the Fibular Nerve Selectively) Deep Fibular Mononeuropathy at the Ankle (Anterior Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome) Superficial Fibular Mononeuropathy See also Further Reading Filters, Analog/Digital Abstract Physiological Signals Digital Filters See also Further Reading Fisher's Syndrome and Bickerstaff's Encephalitis; Immunology of Abstract Introduction and the Historical Aspect Heterogeneity in Clinical Presentation Antecedent Infections Immunopathogenesis of Fisher's Syndrome and Bickerstaff's Brainstem Encephalitis Clinical Course and Management See also Further Reading Fixation and Processing of Central Nervous System Tissue Abstract Introduction Design Considerations for CNS Analysis Fixation of CNS Tissues Processing of CNS Tissues Summary See also Further Reading Fixation and Processing of the Peripheral Nervous System Abstract General Considerations Fixation and Processing of the Peripheral Nervous System for Ultrastructural Endpoints Fixation and Processing of the Peripheral Nervous System for Light Microscopy, Immunohistochemistry, and Histochemistry Endpoints Teased Fiber Preparation of the Peripheral Nervous System Preparation of Skin Biopsies for Intraepidermal Nerve Fiber Density Determination See also Further Reading Flourens, Marie-Jean-Pierre Abstract See also Further Reading Focal Cortical Dysplasia Abstract Introduction Definition Evolution of Classification Systems Pathology Features Neuroradiology Outcome Following Surgery What is the Cause of Focal Cortical Dysplasia? What Makes Focal Cortical Dysplasia Epileptogenic? See also Further Reading Foerster, Otfrid Abstract The Early Years The Neurologist The Scientist The Surgeon The Teacher The Man Epilogue See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Foot Drop Abstract Definition Etiology See also Further Reading Ford, Frank R Abstract See also Further Reading Forel, Auguste-Henri Abstract Introduction Fields of Forel Neuron Theory Retirement See also Further Reading Forster, Francis Abstract Distinguished Career Famous Cases Legacy See also Further Reading Freeman II, Walter Jackson Abstract Introduction Career The Freeman–Watts Frontal Lobotomy Freeman's Transorbital (‘ice pick’) Lobotomy Chlorpromazine and the Decline of Lobotomy See also Further Reading Freud, Sigmund Abstract See also Further Reading Frey, Łucja Abstract See also Further Reading Friedreich, Nikolaus Abstract See also Further Reading Friedreich's Ataxia Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Frontal Lobes Abstract Introduction Neuroanatomy Functions and Important Connections of the Frontal Lobes Common Causes of Frontal Lobe Damage Signs of Frontal Lobe Damage Assessment of Frontal Lobe Functioning Recovery after Frontal Lobe Damage See also Further Reading Frontotemporal Dementia Abstract Clinical Syndromes Clinical–Pathological Correlations Neuropathology Genetics Diagnosis and Imaging Conclusion See also Further Reading Functional Electrical Stimulation Abstract See also Further Reading Fungal Abscess, Cerebral Abstract See also Further Reading Funk, Casimir Abstract Career 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylalanine Vitamins See also Further Reading G GABAA Receptor Channels; Properties and Regulation Abstract Introduction Structure of GABAA Receptors GABAA Receptor Biosynthesis, Intracellular Trafficking, Recycling, and Degradation Physiological Properties of GABAA Receptor Channels Pharmacological Properties of GABAA Receptors Functional Domains Involved in the Ion Channel Functional Domains for Agonist and Allosteric Drug Actions See also Further Reading Gage, Phineas Abstract See also Further Reading Gait and Gait Disorders Abstract Normal Gait Abnormal Gaits Treatment See also Further Reading Gajdusek, D. Carleton Abstract See also Further Reading Galactosemia Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Basic Defect Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Galen Abstract See also Further Reading Gall, Franz Joseph Abstract See also Further Reading Galvani, Luigi (Aloisio) Abstract Introduction Career De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius The Galvani–Volta Controversy See also Further Reading Ganglionectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Gangliosidoses Abstract See also Further Reading Gap Junctions in the Nervous System Abstract Introduction General Properties of Gap Junctions See also Further Reading Gasser, Herbert Spencer Abstract Introduction Early Career See also Further Reading Gastrointestinal Functions Abstract Normal Gastric, Small Bowel, and Colonic Motility Normal Gastrointestinal Secretion Normal Gastrointestinal Sensation Regulation of Gut Functions Conclusion See also Further Reading Gaucher's Disease Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis Diagnosis Management See also Further Reading Genetic Testing, Molecular Abstract See also Further Reading Genitofemoral Nerve Abstract See also Further reading Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker Syndrome Abstract Introduction History Clinical and Neuropathological Features in Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker Disease Families Associated with Other Prion Protein Gene Mutations Diagnosis and Therapy See also Further Reading Geschwind, Norman Abstract Early Career Disconnexion Syndromes in Animals and Man Later Career and Legacy See also Further Reading Giant Cell (Temporal) Arteritis Abstract Introduction Pathology Demographics Disease Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Diagnostic/Treatment Complications Prognosis See also Further Reading Gilles de la Tourette, Georges Abstract See also Further Reading Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Glial Tumors Abstract Introduction Environmental Factors Molecular Biology Glioma Classification Anaplastic Ependymoma See also Further Reading Globus Pallidus Abstract Cytology Connectivity Physiology Ventral Pallidum Functional Considerations See also Further Reading Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Cranial Nerve IX) Abstract Introduction Gross Anatomy Functional Components Clinical Correlations See also Further Reading Glycogen Storage Diseases Abstract Introduction Glycogen Storage Disease Type Ia (Glucose-6-Phosphatase Deficiency: von Gierke's Disease) and Glycogen Storage Disease Type Ib (Glucose-6-Phosphate Translocase Deficiency) Glycogen Storage Disease Type II (Lysosomal Acid alpha-Glucosidase Deficiency, Pompe's Disease, Acid Maltase Deficiency, and alpha-1,4 Glucosidase Deficiency) Glycogen Storage Disease Type III (Amylo-1,6-Glucosidase (Debrancher) Deficiency, Limit Dextrinosis, Cori's Disease, and Forbes' Disease) Glycogen Storage Disease Type IV (Brancher Deficiency, Amylopectinosis, Amylo-1,4-1,6-Transglucosidase Deficiency, and Andersen's Disease) Glycogen Storage Disease Type V (Muscle Phosphorylase Deficiency, McArdle's Disease, and Myophosphorylase Deficiency) Glycogen Storage Disease Type VI (Hepatic Phosphorylase Deficiency and Hers' Disease) Glycogen Storage Disease Type VII (Muscle Phosphofructokinase Deficiency and Tarui's Disease) Glycogen Storage Disease Type IX (Phosphorylase Kinase Deficiency) Glycogen Storage Disease Type 0 (Liver Glycogen Synthase Deficiency) Glycogen Storage Disease Type XI (Fanconi–Bickel Syndrome) Glycogen Storage Diseases Mimicking Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy See also Further Reading GM1 Gangliosidosis Abstract See also Further Reading Goldberger, Joseph Abstract Introduction Early Career Observational Studies of Pellagra Human Experiments Concerning Pellagra The ‘Pellagra-Preventive Factor’ An Animal Model: Black Tongue in Dogs Prevention of Pellagra Endemic Pellagra and Complex Social Issues See also Further Reading Golgi, Camillo Abstract Biographical Sketch Golgi's Major Achievements See also Further Reading Goltz, Friedrich Leopold Abstract See also Further Reading Gowers, William Richard Abstract See also Further Reading Gräfe, Albrecht von Abstract Introduction Career Contributions See also Further Reading Granit, Ragnar Abstract Introduction Career The Electrophysiology of Color Processing in the Retina See also Further Reading Grasp Reflex Abstract See also Further Reading Graves' Orbitopathy Abstract See also Further Reading Griesinger, Wilhelm Abstract See also Further Reading Grijns, Gerrit Abstract See also Further Reading Guillain–Barré Syndrome Abstract Guillain–Barré Syndrome History Epidemiology Clinical Features Clinical Variants Differential Diagnosis Diagnostic Studies Pathophysiology Therapy Supportive Treatment Prognosis See also Further Reading Guillain, Georges Abstract Introduction Guillain–Barre´–Strohl Syndrome Guillain's Sign (or Guillain–Alajouanine Reflex, Mediopubic Reflex) Guillain–Alajouanine–Garcin Syndrome (or Garcin Syndrome, Hemibasal Syndrome) Guillain–Mollaret Triangle See also Further Reading Guttmann, Ludwig Abstract See also Further Reading H Hall, Marshall Abstract Introduction Career See also Further Reading Hallpike, Charles Skinner Abstract Career See also Further Reading Hallucinations, Visual and Auditory Abstract Introduction Visual Hallucinations Auditory Hallucinations See also Further Reading Hammond, William A Abstract Introduction Early Career Surgeon General and Court-martial Private Practice See also Further Reading Handedness and Cerebral Laterality Abstract See also Further Reading Hartline, Haldan Keffer Headache and Craniofacial Neuralgias Abstract Introduction Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia Nervus Intermedius Neuralgia (Geniculate Neuralgia, Ramsay Hunt Syndrome) Superior Laryngeal Neuralgia Nasociliary Neuralgia (Charlin's Neuralgia) Supraorbital Neuralgia Other Terminal Branch Neuralgias Ocular Diabetic Neuropathy Head or Facial Pain Attributed to Herpes Zoster Tolosa–Hunt Syndrome Central Causes of Facial Pain Anesthesia Dolorosa Central Poststroke Pain Facial Pain Attributed to Multiple Sclerosis Burning Mouth Syndrome Persistent Idiopathic Facial Pain (Atypical Face Pain) Conclusions See also Further Reading Headache, Hypnic Abstract Clinical Presentation Epidemiology Pathophysiology Differential Diagnosis and Diagnostic Work-Up Comorbidity Course of Disease Therapy See also Further Reading Headache, Posttraumatic Abstract Epidemiology Classification Characteristics of Posttraumatic Headache Pathophysiology of Posttraumatic Headache Treatment of Posttraumatic Headache Special Populations Conclusions See also Further Reading Headache, Tension-Type Abstract Introduction Definition Diagnosis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Head, Henry Abstract Introduction Career Herpes Zoster and the Head–Campbell Dermatomal Map Self-Experiments on Cutaneous Sensation Central Sensory Disorders The Mass Reflex and Autonomic Dysreflexia (Head–Riddoch Syndrome) Aphasia Literature and Love Awards and Honors See also Further Reading Head Trauma, Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Hearing Loss Abstract Types of Hearing Loss Etiology Clinical Presentation Investigation Management See also Further Reading Helmholtz, Hermann Abstract See also Further Reading Hemangiomas Abstract See also Further Reading Hemiatrophy Abstract See also Further Reading Hemifacial Spasm Abstract See also Further Reading Hemispherectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia Abstract Introduction Classification Symptoms Genetic Types of HSP Treatment See also Further Reading Hering, Ewald Abstract Career See also Further Reading Herniation Syndromes Abstract Introduction Supratentorial Herniation Tonsillar Herniation Management of Brain Herniation See also Further Reading Herpesviruses, Human Abstract Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Hess, Walter Abstract See also Further Reading Heterotrimeric G Proteins Abstract G Protein Superfamily Heterotrimeric G Proteins and G Protein-Coupled Receptors Gα Structure and Function Gβγ Structure and Function Nucleotide-Driven G Protein Functional Cycle GTPase-Activating Proteins Cellular Physiological Context of G Proteins See also Further Reading Hexosaminidase Deficiency Abstract Tay–Sachs Disease (Infantile GM2 Gangliosidosis) Atypical GM2 Gangliosidoses Genetics Prospects for Therapy See also Further Reading Relevant Website Hippocampus Abstract Introduction Hippocampal Circuitry and Location Within the Limbic System Pharmacology of the Hippocampus The Hippocampus and Memory The Hippocampus and Epilepsy The Hippocampus and Schizophrenia Neurogenesis in the Hippocampus Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Hippocrates Abstract See also Further Reading His Sr., Wilhelm Abstract See also Further Reading Histochemical Staining of CNS Tissue Abstract What Stain (i.e., Dyes) and What Is Stained (i.e., Target)? Principles of Dye Staining Methods Pitfalls with Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Samples and Myelin Stains Silver Impregnation Methods Fluorochrome as a Conformational Probe Lectin and Immunohistochemistry Conclusions See also Further Reading Hitzig, Eduard Abstract See also Further Reading HIV Infection, Neurological Complications of Abstract Introduction Epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Biology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Advances in Antiretroviral Therapy Neurological Manifestations of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Central Nervous System Opportunistic Processes in Immunodeficiency States Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome Conclusion See also Further Reading H.M. (Henry Gustav Molaison) Abstract See also Further Reading Hodgkin, Alan Lloyd Abstract Career The Action Potential Honors See also Further Reading Hoffmann H-Reflex Abstract See also Further Reading Hoffmann, Johann Abstract See also Further Reading Hoffmann, Paul Abstract Hoffman–Tinel Sign See also Further Reading Hoffmann's Sign Abstract Introduction Method of Elicitation Clinical Significance See also Further Reading Holmes, Gordon Abstract Introduction World War I Mapping the Visual Cortex Later Career See also Further Reading Horner, Johann Friedrich Abstract Career Oculosympathetic Paresis (Horner's syndrome) Horner's Law See also Further Reading Horner's Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Horsley, Victor Abstract The Early Years The Surgeon The Scientist The Social Reformer Epilogue See also Further Reading Horton, Bayard Taylor Abstract See also Further Reading Hounsfield, Godfrey N Abstract Introduction Career Computed Tomography See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Human African Trypanosomiasis Abstract Introduction Geography, Epidemiology, and Transmission Pathogenesis Clinical Features Clinical Management in Endemic Countries and Rural Settings Biological Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Conclusion See also Further Reading Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Viruses (HTLVs) Abstract Introduction History Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus-1 Future Directions See also Further Reading Hun, Henry Abstract See also Further Reading Huntington, George Abstract See also Further Reading Huntington's Disease Abstract See also Further Reading Hunt, James Ramsay Abstract Introduction Geniculate Neuralgia Entrapment Neuropathy of the Deep Palmar Branch of the Ulnar Nerve Progressive Cerebellar Dysynnergia Carotid Artery Occlusion in the Neck See also Further Reading Hydrocephalus Abstract See also Further Reading Hyperglycemia and Coma Abstract Introduction Definition Etiology and Clinical Features Epidemiology Laboratory Values Pathophysiology of Impaired Consciousness in Hyperglycemia Treatment See also Further Reading Hyperhidrosis Abstract See also Further Reading Hyperthermia Abstract Definition Incidence Causes Clinical Features Pathogenesis Management Outcomes See also Further Reading Hypnotics Abstract Introduction Benzodiazepine Receptor Agonists Antidepressants Antipsychotics Antihistamines Melatonin General Treatment Principles See also Further Reading Hypoglossal Nerve (Cranial Nerve XII) Abstract Anatomy Physiology and Function Clinical Examination Clinical Syndromes Laboratory Studies See also Further Reading Hypoglycemia Abstract See also Further Reading Hypomelanosis of Ito Abstract See also Further Reading Hypothermia Abstract Introduction Classification Pathophysiology of Complications Clinical Features Laboratory Features Management Outcome/Prognosis See also Further Reading Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest Abstract Background and Rationale Patient Selection Technique Outcomes of Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest Conclusions See also Further Reading Hypotonic Infant Abstract Introduction Clinical Assessment Differential Diagnosis Disorders Causing Central Hypotonia Disorders Causing Peripheral Hypotonia See also Further Reading I Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension Abstract Introduction/Diagnostic Criteria Epidemiology Monitoring/Diagnosis Etiology Treatment See also Further Reading Immune System, Adaptive; Overview Abstract Adaptive Immunity Neurological Disorders See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Immune System, Innate; Overview Abstract Innate Immune System and Central Nervous System CNS Autoimmune Diseases and the Innate Immune System Innate Immune System and Multiple Sclerosis See also Further Reading Immunohistochemistry and Brain Tumors Abstract Introduction Glial Tumors Nonglial Tumors Conclusions See also Further Reading Immunology of Demyelinating Immune Neuropathies Abstract Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathy Pathology Laboratory Diagnosis Animal Models Pathogenesis Multifocal Motor Neuropathy Pathology Animal Models Pathogenesis Antimyelin-Associated Glycoprotein Neuropathy See also Further Reading Impulse Conduction: Molecular Perspectives Abstract Introduction Axonal Membrane Structure Fluctuations in Axonal Excitability Associated with Impulse Conduction Implications of Ion Channel Physiology for Neurological Disease See also Further Reading Incontinentia Pigmenti (IP) Abstract See also Further Reading Inferior Colliculus Abstract Introduction Central Nucleus Cortex Lateral Nucleus See also Further Reading Influenza Virus Abstract Introduction 1918 Influenza Pandemic, Encephalitis Lethargica, and Postencephalitic Parkinsonism Reye's Syndrome Swine Influenza Virus Vaccine and Guillain–Barré Syndrome Encephalopathy Associated with Influenza Human Influenza Due to Avian Influenza Virus H5N1 Summary Further Reading Inouye, Tatsuji Abstract See also Further Reading In Situ Hybridization Abstract Introduction In Situ Hybridization Techniques in the Cytogenetic Evaluation of Constitutional Disorders In Situ Hybridization Techniques in the Cytogenetic Evaluation of Acquired Disorders: Primary Brain Tumors In Situ Hybridization Evaluation of Primary Brain Tumors: Glial Neoplasms In Situ Hybridization Evaluation of Primary Brain Tumors: Non-Glial Neoplasms See also Further Reading Insomnia Abstract Nosologies and Classifications of Insomnia Causes of Insomnia Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Insomnia, Cognitive Behavioral Treatment of Abstract Introduction Objectives of Cognitive Behavioral Treatment Techniques Utilized in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Evidence for Efficacy and Practicality See also Further Reading Insomnia, Fatal Abstract Genetics Clinical Features Neuropathology Scrapie Prion Protein Pathogenesis Conclusions See also Further Reading Intercostal Nerve Abstract Clinical Symptoms Etiology See also Further Reading Interferons Abstract Mechanisms of Action Use in Neurological Diseases Conclusion See also Further Reading Intervertebral Disk Abstract Introduction Anatomy Biochemistry Biomechanics Conclusion See also Further Reading Intoxication Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Diagnosis Investigations Management See also Further Reading Intracerebral Hemorrhage, Primary Abstract Introduction Risk Factors and Etiology Pathophysiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment Medical Stabilization Prognosis See also Further Reading Intracranial Hypertension Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Causes Diagnosis Management Prognosis See also Further Reading Intracranial Pressure Abstract See also Further Reading Intracranial Pressure Monitoring Abstract See also Further Reading Ion Channels, Overview Abstract Introduction Functional Properties of Ion Channels Ion Channel Families Structure–Function Relationships Ion Channel Diseases See also Further Reading Isaacs' Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Laboratory Features Pathogenesis Treatment See also Further Reading Ischemic Cell Death; Mechanisms Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Mitochondrial Dysfunction as a Death Trigger Conclusion See also Further Reading Ischemic Stroke; Acute Treatment Abstract Introduction Emergency Management Tissue Plasminogen Activator Prevention and Management of Complications Experimental Treatments See also Further Reading Ischemic Stroke; Animal Models Abstract See also Further Reading Itard, Jean-Marc Gaspard Abstract See also Further Reading J Jackson, John Hughlings Abstract Introduction Aphasia The Nature of the Epileptic Discharge Evolutionary Neurophysiology Psychology Ophthalmology in General Medicine See also Further Reading Jakob, Alfons Abstract See also Further Reading James, William Abstract Career James–Lange Theory of Emotions The Principles of Psychology See also Further Reading JC (Crawford, John) Abstract See also Further Reading Jendrassik, Ernö Abstract See also Further Reading Jet Lag Abstract Introduction Conclusion See also Further Reading Jewell, James Stewart Abstract Career American Neurological Association A Delver in Books and Journals See also Further Reading K Katz, Bernard Abstract Introduction Action Potential Mechanisms Physiology of Neurotransmitter Release Postsynaptic Mechanisms See also Further Reading Keen, William Williams Abstract Introduction Career The US Civil War Secret Surgery on President Cleveland World War I Works Honors and Recognition See also Further Reading Kennedy's Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Description Physical Examination Anatomical and Clinical Pathology Differential Diagnosis Genetics and Molecular Biology Counseling and Diagnosis Management and Therapy See also Further Reading Kenny, ‘Sister’ Elizabeth Abstract See also Further Reading Kernicterus Abstract Bilirubin Metabolism Cellular Effects of Bilirubin Bilirubin Determination Diagnostic Findings Associated Conditions Treatment of Newborn Jaundice and Prevention of Kernicterus See also Further Reading Kernig's Sign Abstract See also Further Reading Kernig, Vladimir Abstract See also Further Reading Korsakoff, Sergei Abstract Introduction Career Korsakoff's Psychosis Relationship between Korsakoff's Psychosis and Wernicke's Encephalopathy See also Further Reading Krabbe's Disease Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Kühne, Wilhelm (Willy) Friedrich Abstract Introduction Career Enzymes and Digestion Neuromuscular Physiology Rhodopsin and Photochemical Transduction See also Further Reading Kussmaul Breathing L Lacunar Infarcts Abstract Introduction Pathology Risk Factors Clinical Syndromes Diagnostic Evaluation Management Secondary Prevention Conclusion See also Further Reading Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Abstract History Clinical Features Pathophysiology of Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Immunopathology of Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Electrodiagnostic Findings Treatment of Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Medications/Situations to Avoid See also Further Reading Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome (LEMS), Immunology of Abstract Introduction Neuromuscular Transmission Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels Antibodies in Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Neuromuscular Junction in Lambert–Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome Associated Disease Etiology Future Perspectives See also Further Reading Lambert, Edward Abstract See also Further Reading Laminectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Langdon Down, John Abstract See also Further Reading Langley, John Newport Abstract See also Further Reading Language and Discourse Abstract Discourse in Normal Cognitive Aging Discourse of the Dementias Discourse in Focal Neurological Injuries Traumatic Brain Injury in Adults Conclusion See also Further Reading Language Disorders, Overview Abstract Introduction Aphasia Resulting from Stroke Nonfluent Aphasias Fluent Aphasias Primary Progressive Aphasia The Right Hemisphere and Language See also Further Reading Lasègue, Charles Abstract See also Further Reading Lashley, Karl Spencer Abstract Introduction Career Learning The Migraine Aura See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Lateral Spine Surgery, Direct (Extreme) Abstract See also Further Reading Lauterbur, Paul Abstract Introduction Career Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Development of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Mansfield's Contributions The Damadian Controversy See also Further Reading Lead Abstract General Description and History Sources of Exposure Routes of Absorption, Deposition, and Elimination Mechanisms of Toxicity Toxic Effects of Lead Poisoning Diagnosis Treatment and Prognosis Regulation See also Further Reading Leão, Aristides Abstract Cortical Spreading Depression See also Further Reading Relevant Website Learning Disability: Overview Abstract Introduction Prevalence Etiology Comorbidity Genetics Neuroanatomy Learning/Cognitive Profile Assessment Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Lennox, William Gordon Abstract See also Further Reading Leprosy Abstract Introduction Clinical Picture Epidemiology Consequences Treatment See also Further Reading Leptin Abstract Introduction Leptin and Obesity Physiological Effects of Leptin See also Further Reading Leptomeninges; Arachnoid and Pia Abstract Arachnoid Pia Conclusion See also Further Reading Lesch–Nyhan Syndrome Abstract Introduction Disease Symptoms Gouty Arthritis Molecular Genetics of Lesch–Nyhan Syndrome Treatment and Prospects Further Reading Leukodystrophy Abstract See also Further Reading Leukoencephalopathy Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Lewis, Morris J Abstract See also Further Reading Lewy, Fritz Heinrich Abstract Lewy Bodies in Parkinson's Disease See also Further Reading Lhermitte, Jean Abstract See also Further Reading Lhermitte's Symptom Abstract See also Further Reading Light Therapy Abstract Human Circadian Rhythms Light Therapy for Circadian Rhythm Disorders Light Therapy for Mood Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophies Abstract Overview Autosomal Dominant Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Autosomal Recessive Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Limbic System Abstract Introduction Development and Definitions of the Term Structures of the Limbic System Nature of the Limbic System Difficulties of the Term Practical Use of the Term See also Further Reading Lipidoses Abstract See also Further Reading Lipoprotein Disorders Abstract Tangier's Disease Abetalipoproteinemia (Bassen–Kornzweig Disease) See also Further Reading Little, William John Abstract See also Further Reading Lobectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Lobectomy, Temporal Abstract See also Further Reading Lobotomy Abstract See also Further Reading Localization Abstract Introduction Clinical Diagnosis Knowledge of Neuroanatomy Discrete Lesions Versus System Pathology See also Further Reading Locked-In Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Lorente de Nó, Rafael Abstract See also Further Reading Lower Motor Neuron Lesions Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Clinical Neurophysiology Differentiating Lower Motor Neuron Weakness from Other Causes See also Further Reading Lumbar Plexopathy Abstract Lumbar Plexopathy Causes of Lumbar Plexopathy Anatomy of the Lumbosacral Plexus Clinical Consequences Diagnostic Tests Symptoms and Signs See also Further Reading Lumbar Puncture, Ventriculostomy, and Ventriculitis Abstract Anatomical Overview Physiological Considerations Indications and Contraindications for Lumbar Puncture and Ventriculostomy Lumbar Puncture Ventriculostomy Complications Conclusion See also Further Reading Lumbar Spine Stabilization Abstract Introduction Causes of Lumbar Instability Surgical Indications and Patient Evaluation Surgical Approaches Surgical Adjuncts Surgical Complications Postoperative Management See also Further Reading Luria, Alexander Romanovich Abstract See also Further Reading Luys, Jules Bernard Abstract See also Further Reading Lyme Disease Abstract See also Further Reading Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV) Abstract See also Further Reading Lysosomal Storage Disorders Abstract Introduction The Lysosome and its Contents Pathophysiology and Diagnosis Recent Advances Management See also Further Reading M MacEwen, William Abstract See also Further Reading Mach, Ernst Abstract Introduction Career Mach Bands Mach–Breuer Theory of Endolymphatic Shift See also Further Reading Magendie, François Abstract Career Experimental Keratomalacia (Vitamin A-Deficiency Eye Disease) Bell–Magendie Law Skew Deviation in Acute Cerebellar Lesions (Magendie–Hertwig Sign) Foramen of Magendie See also Further Reading Magnetic Resonance Angiography of Cervical and Intracranial Vessels Abstract Introduction Noncontrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography Conventional Bolus-Chase Magnetic Resonance Angiography Technique Time-Resolved Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography See also Further Reading Magnetic Resonance Imaging Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Intraoperative Abstract Intraoperative MRI Systems Experience Discussion See also Further Reading Magnetic Resonance (MR); Overview Abstract Basics Relaxation Applications See also Further Reading Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Abstract Basics Chemical Shift Scalar Coupling Clinical Application See also Further Reading Magnetic Stimulation Abstract Magnetic Stimulator and Coils Which Elements of the Motor Cortex Are Stimulated? Methods and Measurements Use of the Magnetic Coil for Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Stimulation of Cranial Nerves Safety Considerations and Side Effects Magnetic Stimulation in Disease See also Further Reading Magnetoencephalography Abstract Brain Electrical Activity Brain Imaging Source Localization Recording Methodology Conclusion See also Further Reading Malaria Abstract Epidemiology and Transmission Pathogenesis Diagnosis Clinical Features Treatment and Prevention See also Further Reading Malformations of Central Nervous System Abstract See also Further Reading Manganese Abstract Description Other Exposures Regulation Routes of Exposure Metabolism and Elimination Mechanisms Neurological Effects Other Health Problems Diagnosis and Treatment See also Further Reading Maple Syrup Urine Disease Abstract Introduction History of Maple Syrup Urine Disease The Branched-Chain α-Ketoacid Dehydrogenase Complex Mutations Causing Maple Syrup Urine Disease Pathophysiology Future Concerns See also Further Reading Marie, Pierre Abstract See also Further Reading Marinescu, Gheorghe Abstract Introduction Career Marinescu–Sjögren Syndrome See also Further Reading Mass Effect Abstract Introduction History Etiology and Pathophysiology Symptoms and Signs Diagnosis Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Measles Virus, Neurological Complications of Abstract Introduction The Virus The Acute Infection Measles Virus and the Central Nervous System Postinfectious Measles Encephalitis Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis Subacute Measles Encephalitis with Immunosuppression Conclusion Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Median Nerve and Neuropathy Abstract Anatomy Motor Innervation Sensory Innervation Entrapment Sites Etiology Differential Diagnosis Carpal Tunnel Syndrome Cervical Radiculopathy Brachial Plexopathy Diagnosis Treatment Prognosis See also Further Reading Medulla Oblongata Abstract Introduction Anatomical Features Physiological Functions Clinical Significance of Lesions of the Medulla Oblongata Conclusion See also Further Reading Megalencephaly Abstract See also Further Reading Melatonin Abstract Melatonin and ‘Biological Clock’ System Circulating Melatonin Levels in Humans Endogenous Melatonin and Sleep Physiology Effects of Melatonin Treatment on Sleep Mechanisms of Melatonin Effects on Sleep Melatonin Therapy See also Further Reading Membrane Potential Introduction Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Memory, Autobiographical Abstract Introduction Dissociations in Autobiographical Memory: Semantic and Episodic Components The Cognitive Neuroscience of Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical Memory and Self-Identity Autobiographical Memory in Psychogenic Amnesia See also Further Reading Memory, Episodic Abstract Introduction Assessment of Episodic Memory Neural Substrates of Episodic Memory Episodic Memory Function in Clinical Populations Episodic Memory across the Lifespan See also Further Reading Memory, Explicit/Implicit Abstract Neuropsychological Dissociations Behavioral Dissociations Neuroimaging Dissociations Evidence Contrary to Implicit versus Explicit Memory Dissociations Ongoing Issues See also Further Reading Memory, Overview Abstract Introduction Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory Long-Term and Short-Term Memory Retrograde and Anterograde Memory Conclusion See also Further Reading Memory, Semantic Abstract Overview Category Specificity Modality Specificity Anatomical Considerations See also Further Reading Memory, Working Abstract Introduction Alan Baddeley's Influential Model of Working Memory Measurement of Working Memory Neuroscience Investigations of Working Memory Integration of Neuroscience Findings with Baddeley's Model Conclusions See also Further Reading Ménière, Prosper Abstract See also Further Reading Ménière's Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Mechanism Treatment Diet and Medication Surgical Intervention See also Further Reading Meningiomas Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Imaging Characteristics Treatment and Prognosis See also Further Reading Meningitis, Bacterial Abstract See also Further Reading Meningitis, Eosinophilic Abstract Introduction Parasitic Causes of Eosinophilic Meningitis Rare Parasitic Causes of Eosinophilic Meningitis Nonparasitic Infectious Etiologies of Eosinophilic Meningitis Myeloproliferative and Neoplastic Etiologies of Eosinophilic Meningitis Other Noninfectious Causes of Eosinophilic Meningitis See also Further Reading Meningitis, Fungal Abstract Introduction Clinical Picture Diagnosis Treatment Complications See also Further Reading Meningitis, Viral Abstract Introduction Pathogenesis Epidemiology Clinical Symptoms and Signs Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Meningitis Other Causes of Lymphocytic Meningitis Treatment Prognosis See also Further Reading Menkes Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Biochemical Pathology Molecular Pathology Prenatal Testing Treatment Summary Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disability Abstract Introduction History Epidemiology Etiology Genetics Conclusion See also Further Reading Mental Status Testing Abstract Introduction History Psychiatric Status Cognitive Status Conclusion See also Further Reading Meralgia Paresthetica Abstract Introduction Clinical Syndrome Etiology Differential Diagnosis Electrodiagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Mercury Abstract Description Production Routes of Exposure Metabolism and Elimination of Mercury Mechanisms Neurological Effects Other Health Effects Diagnosis and Treatment See also Further Reading Merritt, H. Houston Abstract See also Further Reading Mesmer, Franz Abstract See also Further Reading Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (Sulfatide Lipidosis) Abstract Introduction Clinical Characteristics Pathology Biochemistry and Genetics Management See also Further Reading Metastases, Brain Abstract Introduction Anticonvulsants Corticosteroids Radiotherapy Surgery Radiosurgery Adjuvant Whole Brain Radiotherapy Used in Conjunction with Conventional Surgery or Stereotactic Radiosurgery Chemotherapy See also Further Reading Methanol Abstract See also Further Reading Meynert, Theodore Hermann Abstract See also Further Reading Microcephaly Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Microglia Abstract Introduction History and Detection Microglial Origin Microglial Activation Microglial Cytotoxicity Microglia as Antigen-Presenting Cells Microglia as a Sensor of Tissue Pathology Other Central Nervous System Macrophages See also Further Reading Microneurography Abstract Introduction Microneurographic Recording Technique Muscle Sympathetic Nerve Activity in Healthy Humans Sympathetic Nerve Activity in Clinical Conditions Skin Sympathetic Nerve Activity Future Perspectives Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Microneurosurgery Abstract Historical Background Microneurosurgical Instruments Microneurosurgical Techniques Education See also Further Reading Microscopy Abstract History Typical Components of the Microscope Fluorescent Markers Key Microscopy Concepts Polarizing and Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy Confocal Microscopy Two-Photon (Multiphoton) Scanning Microscopy Electron Microscopy Novel Techniques Basics of Image Acquisition and Processing See also Further Reading Microvascular Pathology Abstract Introduction Types of Lesions Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Micturition Abstract Anatomy Neuroanatomy Physiology See also Further Reading Midbrain Abstract Embryology General Anatomy of the Midbrain Tectum Tegmentum Pathology See also Further Reading Migraine, Children and Abstract Introduction to Pediatric Migraine Diagnosing Migraine in Pediatric Patients The Childhood Periodic Syndromes Acute Migraine Treatment in Children and Adolescents Preventive Treatment for Pediatric and Adolescent Migraine Conclusions See also Further Reading Migraine; Clinical Aspects Abstract Introduction Definition and Diagnosis Epidemiology Clinical Features Conclusion See also Further Reading Migraine; Genetics Abstract Migraine Pathophysiology of Migraine Genetic Epidemiology of Migraine Hemiplegic Migraine Is It Possible to Translate Genetic Results from Familial Hemiplegic Migraine to Common Migraine? Identification of Susceptibility Factors for Common Migraine Conclusion/Summary/Future Studies See also Further Reading Migraine, Ischemic Stroke and Abstract See also Further Reading Migraine, Medical Treatment of Abstract Introduction General Aspects Managing Migraine Triggers Acute Migraine Treatment Preventive Therapy of Migraine See also Further Reading Migraine, Medication Overuse Headache and Abstract Chronic Migraine Epidemiology Chronic Migraine Diagnosis Comorbid Disorders Risk Factors for the Development of Chronic Migraine Chronic Migraine Treatment Reversion from Chronic to Episodic Migraine See also Further Reading Migraine; Menstruation, Pregnancy and Lactation Abstract Introduction Menstrual Migraine Migraine During Pregnancy Migraine During Lactation See also Further Reading Migraine, Neurostimulation Treatment of Abstract Introduction Occipital Nerve Stimulation Supraorbital Nerve Stimulation Vagus Nerve Stimulation Sphenopalatine Ganglion Stimulation Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Conclusions See also Further Reading Migraine, Pathophysiology of Abstract Introduction Trigeminovascular Anatomical Mechanisms Central Control of Trigeminovascular Nociceptive Traffic and Migraine Symptoms The Migrainous Brain See also Further Reading Mild Cognitive Impairment Abstract Introduction Historical Context Diagnostic Paradigms for Mild Cognitive Impairment Epidemiology of Mild Cognitive Impairment Biomarkers for Mild Cognitive Impairment Neuropsychology of Mild Cognitive Impairment Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Mills, Charles Karsner Abstract See also Further Reading Minot, George R and Murphy, William P Abstract See also Further Reading Mitchell, Silas Weir Abstract Early Life and Career Studies of Nerve Injuries During the US Civil War The Rest Treatment After the Civil War See also Further Reading Mitochondrial Disorders: Metabolic and Genetic Basis Abstract Introduction Specific Pathways of Fuel Metabolism Common Pathways of Oxidative Metabolism Mitochondrial Genetics Diagnostic Approaches Functional Testing Genetic Testing Summary See also Further Reading Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke (MELAS) Abstract Clinical and Laboratory Features Genetics Clinical Heterogeneity Genetic Heterogeneity Diagnosis Pathophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Monakow, Constantin von Abstract See also Further Reading Moniz, Egaz Abstract Introduction Family Medical Career Political Career Cerebral Angiography Prefrontal Leucotomy See also Further Reading Mononeuropathy Multiplex Abstract See also Further Reading Monro, Alexander Abstract See also Further Reading Moro, Ernst Abstract See also Further Reading Moro Reflex Abstract See also Further Reading Motor Control, Peripheral Abstract Histology and Connections of the Peripheral Nervous System Physiological Events Leading to Muscle Contraction Spinal Control Mechanisms for Muscle Contraction See also Further Reading Motor Cortex Abstract Introduction Anatomical and Electrophysiological Definitions of the Motor Areas of Cortex Output of Cortical Motor Areas Inputs to Cortical Motor Areas Activity of Motor Cortical Neurons Effect of Lesions of Motor Cortical Areas Plasticity of Primary Motor Cortex See also Further Reading Motor Evoked Potentials Abstract Introduction Recording Techniques Interpretation of Motor Evoked Potentials See also Further Reading Motor System; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Motor Unit Potential Abstract Introduction Motor Unit Potential Morphology Recruitment/Interference Pattern Motor Unit Potential in Pathological States See also Further Reading Movement Disorders; Cognitive and Behavioral Characteristics Abstract Introduction Hypokinetic Movement Disorders Hyperkinetic Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Movement Disorders; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Moyamoya Disease Abstract See also Further Reading MPTP Neurotoxicity Abstract Discovery of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine-Induced Parkinsonism Neuropathology Pathogenetic Implications Mechanisms of MPTP Neurotoxicity MPTP Based Experimental Models MPTP in the Post-α -Synuclein Era See also Further Reading Mucopolysaccharidoses Abstract Manifestations of the Mucopolysaccharidoses Mucopolysaccharidoses I (α -L-Iduronidase Deficiency) Mucopolysaccharidoses II (Iduronosulfatase Deficiency) Mucopolysaccharidoses III (Sanfilippo Syndromes) Mucopolysaccharidoses IV (Morquio Syndrome) Mucopolysaccharidoses VI (Maroteaux–Lamy Syndrome) Mucopolysaccharidoses VII (Sly Disease) Mucopolysaccharidoses IX (Hyaluronidase Deficiency) Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency Treatment of the Mucopolyssacharidoses See also Further Reading Müller, Johannes Abstract See also Further Reading Multifocal Motor Neuropathy Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Other Diagnostic Tests in Multifocal Motor Neuropathy Diagnostic Categories in Multifocal Motor Neuropathy Pathogenesis Therapy Conclusion See also Further Reading Multiple Sclerosis and Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis: Immunology Abstract Multiple Sclerosis, Basic Biology Genetics and Immunology Gray and White Matter: Inflammation and Demyelination White Matter Lesions and Pathology The Fate of Oligodendrocytes and Remyelination Gray Matter Lesions and Pathology Application of Advanced Imaging Techniques in Multiple Sclerosis Pathology Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Conclusion See also Further Reading Multiple Sclerosis; Diagnosis Abstract Historical Description of Multiple Sclerosis Typical Clinical Presentations Clinical Subtypes of Multiple Sclerosis Diagnosing Multiple Sclerosis Multiple Sclerosis Prognosis See also Further Reading Multiple Sclerosis; Epidemiology Abstract Introduction Epidemiology in Multiple Sclerosis Distribution from Prevalence Surveys Survival Migration Epidemics Multiple Sclerosis Risk Factors Conclusion See also Further Reading Multiple Sleep Latency Test Abstract Introduction History Factors Affecting Multiple Sleep Latency Test Methodology Utility Standards of Practice Parameters Conclusion See also Further Reading Multiple System Atrophy Abstract Background Epidemiology Clinical Features Differential Diagnosis Multiple System Atrophy and Pure Autonomic Failure Multiple System Atrophy and Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (Steele–Richardson–Olszewski Syndrome) Multiple System Atrophy and Corticobasal Ganglionic Degeneration Multiple System Atrophy and Cerebrovascular Syndromes Special Tests Management See also Further Reading Multisystem Atrophy (MSA) Abstract See also Further Reading Münchausen by Proxy Abstract See also Further Reading Muscle Biopsy Abstract Biopsy Normal Muscle Neurogenic Disorders Myogenic Disorders See also Further Reading Muscle Biopsy; Processing and Evaluation Abstract Introduction To Biopsy the Muscle Preparation of the Biopsied Muscle Evaluation of the Biopsied Muscle Outlook See also Further Reading Muscle Contraction; Overview Abstract Introduction Membrane Propagation of Electrical Activity Excitation–Contraction–Relaxation Cycle Contractile Apparatus and Noncontractile Structural Complexes Diseases of Muscle Excitation and Contraction See also Further Reading Muscle Strength, Assessment of Abstract Manual Muscle Testing Hand-Held Dynamometer Quantitative Muscle Testing with Fixed Dynamometry Isokinetic Dynamometry Functional Tests Functional Scales Pelvic Floor Strength Respiratory Muscle Strength Variance and Reliability Variability due to the Patient Conclusion See also Further Reading Muscle Tone Abstract Introduction Neurophysiological Regulation of Muscle Tone Clinical Syndromes of Altered Muscle Tone Management of Altered Muscle Tone See also Further Reading Muscular Dystrophy, Becker and Duchenne Abstract Introduction Dystrophin–Glycoprotein Complex Other Sarcolemmal Proteins Muscular Dystrophies The Dystrophinopathies: Duchenne and Becker Muscular Dystrophy Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophy Other Autosomal Recessive Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophies Autosomal Dominant Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophies See also Further Reading Muscular Dystrophy: Emery–Dreifuss, Facioscapulohumeral, Scapuloperoneal, and Bethlem Myopathy Abstract Introduction Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy Scapuloperoneal Dystrophy Emery–Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy Bethlem Myopathy See also Further Reading Muscular Dystrophy, Oculopharyngeal Abstract Definition and Epidemiology Clinical Phenotype Laboratory Findings Molecular Genetics and Diagnosis Pathogenesis Therapy Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Musculocutaneous Nerve Abstract Musculocutaneous Nerve See also Further Reading Musical Brain Abstract Introduction From Vibrating Molecules to Violin Concerto Memory and Music Musical Training Emotion and Music Implications for the Future See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Myasthenia Gravis Abstract Clinical Features Normal Neuromuscular Transmission Immunology Diagnosis Therapy See also Further Reading Myasthenia Gravis, Immunology of Abstract Clinical Overview Antibodies to Components of the Neuromuscular Junction Antibodies to Other Muscle Components Antibodies to Nonmuscle Antigens The Thymus and Myasthenia Gravis Immunogenetics of Myasthenia Gravis Immunoregulation in Myasthenia Gravis Summary See also Further Reading Myasthenic Syndromes, Congenital Abstract Definitions and Basic Concepts Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Investigation of the Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome Presynaptic Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome Synaptic Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome Postsynaptic Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome Pre- and Postsynaptic Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome Prenatal Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome with Fetal Akinesia and Deformations See also Further Reading Myelin Abstract See also Further Reading Myelin Disorders Abstract See also Further Reading Myelin Proteins Abstract See also Further Reading Myelomeningocele Abstract See also Further Reading Myoclonus Abstract See also Further Reading Myokymia Abstract See also Further Reading Myopathy, Congenital Abstract Myopathy, Congenital Clinical Features Laboratory Data Treatment Specific Congenital Myopathies See also Further Reading Myopathy, Endocrine Abstract Introduction Thyroid Disorders Parathyroid Disorders Adrenal Disorders Pituitary Disorders See also Further Reading Myopathy, Metabolic Abstract Introduction Basic Principles of Muscle Energy Metabolism Defects of Glycogen Metabolism Defects of Lipid Metabolism See also Further Reading Myopathy, Mitochondrial Abstract Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Defects See also Further Reading Myopathy; Overview Abstract Clinical Assessment Laboratory Studies for the Evaluation of Myopathy See also Further Reading Myopathy, Toxic Abstract Acute Myopathies Subacute to Chronic Myopathies See also Further Reading Myositis, Inflammatory Abstract Clinical Signs Diagnosis Pathogenesis Treatment See also Further Reading Myotonia Abstract Introduction Myotonic Dystrophies Nondystrophic Myotonias See also Further Reading Myotonic Disorders Abstract Chloride Channel Myotonias Sodium Channel Myotonias See also Further Reading Myotonic Dystrophy Abstract Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 Myotonic Dystrophy Type 2 Treatment Surgery Risks See also Further Reading Nansen, Fridtjof Abstract Introduction Academic Career Arctic Explorer Neuroscientist Patriot, Diplomat, and Humanitarian See also Further Reading Narcolepsy Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Diagnostic Criteria Pathophysiology Differential Diagnosis of Hypersomnolence Treatment See also Further Reading Neglect Disorders Abstract Introduction Clinical Signs and Symptoms Pathophysiology Treatments See also Further Reading Neonatal Seizures Abstract Introduction Clinical and Electroencephalographic Features Pathophysiology Etiology Neonatal Epileptic Syndromes Treatment End Point of Acute Therapy Chronic Antiepileptic Drug Therapy and its Eventual Discontinuation Relative Risks and Benefits of Acute and Chronic Therapy Prognosis See also Further Reading Nerve and Joint Blocks/Lesioning Abstract Introduction Spinal Injections Therapeutic Injections Percutaneous Diagnostic and Treatment Options for Joint Pain Sympathetic Blocks for Neuralgias and Visceral Pain Epidural Blood Patch See also Further Reading Nerve Conduction Studies Abstract Introduction Anatomy General Concepts Pathophysiology Technical Considerations Anomalous Innervations Conclusion See also Further Reading Nerve Injury Abstract Pathogenesis Classification See also Further Reading Nerve Regeneration Abstract See also Further Reading Nerve Repair Abstract Introduction Seddon's Classification System Sunderland's Classification System Molecular Mechanisms of Nerve Repair Clinical Assessment Pain Management Surgical Nerve Repair Outcomes See also Further Reading Nerve Roots Abstract See also Further Reading Nerve Sheath Tumors Abstract Introduction Neurofibroma and Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor Schwannoma See also Further Reading Nervous System, Neuroembryology of Abstract Introduction to Neuroembryology Principles of Ontogenesis Developmental Processes See also Further Reading Neural Tube Defects Abstract Introduction Open Neural Tube Defects Skin-Covered Neural Tube Defects See also Further Reading Neuroacanthocytosis Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Neurocardiogenic Syncope Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Clinical Aspects Head-Upright Tilt Table Testing Summary See also Further Reading Neurocognitive Function, Autoimmune Disorders and Abstract Introduction Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Antiphospholipid Syndrome Rheumatoid Arthritis Primary Sjögren's Syndrome See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Neurocysticercosis Abstract Introduction Life Cycle Pathology and Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment Prevention See also Further Reading Neuroepidemiology, Overview Abstract Introduction Population-Based Rates Cerebrovascular Disease Primary Neoplasms Epilepsy and Seizure Disorders Dementia Parkinson's Disease Overview of Neurological Disorders See also Further Reading Neurofibromatosis Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Management Molecular Biology See also Further Reading Neurogenetics, Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Neuroimaging, Headache Disorders and Abstract Introduction Migraine Photophobia in Migraine Migraine Aura Cluster Headache and Related Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuroimaging, Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Neurointervention, Embolization Materials for Abstract Introduction Sheaths Guide Catheters Distal Access Catheters Microcatheters Microguidewires Aneurysm Treatment Microballoons Flow Diversion Pushable Coils Particle Embolics Liquid Embolics Onyx Stroke Devices See also Further Reading Neurolysis Abstract Technique Adverse Effects Indications See also Further Reading Neuromodulation Techniques, Pain and Abstract Introduction History of Devices Basics of Neurostimulation of the Spinal Cord Indications for Stimulation Patient Selection Spinal Cord Stimulation in Failed Back Surgery Syndrome Treatment Algorithm Spinal Cord Stimulation Peripheral Nerve Stimulation Intrathecal Drug Delivery Systems Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuromuscular Disorders; Overview Abstract Disorders of the Motor Neurons Disorders of the Sensory Neurons Disorders of the Nerve Roots Disorders of Peripheral Nerve Disorders of the Neuromuscular Junction Disorders of Muscle See also Further Reading Neuromuscular Disorders, Sleep and Abstract Introduction Diagnosis Management Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Neuromuscular Junction, Normal Abstract Presynaptic Structure and Function Postsynaptic Structure and Function See also Further Reading Neuromuscular Transmission Disorders: Electrodiagnostic Tests Abstract Introduction Repetitive Nerve Stimulation Test Compound Muscle Action Potential Single-Fiber Electromyography See also Further Reading Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders, Immunology of Abstract Introduction The Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum of Disorders Neuromyelitis Optica–Immunoglobulin G Clinical Utility of Neuromyelitis Optica–Immunoglobulin G Testing Autoimmune Accompaniments Treatment Responses Susceptibility Factors Immunopathology Pathogenic Properties of Neuromyelitis Optica–Immunoglobulin G In Vitro Animal Models of Neuromyelitis Optica See also Further Reading Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses Abstract Clinical Assessment Enzyme Activities See also Further Reading Neuronal Death and Neuroprotection after Stroke and Brain Trauma Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology of Acute Brain Injury Neuronal Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress Poly(Adenosine Diphosphate-Ribose) Polymerase-1 Activation and Secondary Energy Depletion Activation of Enzymatic Casacades and Programmed Neuronal Death Extraneuronal Cell Death and Inflammation Neuroprotective Strategies Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuronal Inclusions Abstract Introduction Neuronal Inclusions Composed of Tau Protein Neuronal Perikaryal Tau Inclusions Neuritic Tau Inclusions Neuronal Inclusions Composed of α -Synuclein Neuronal Inclusions Composed of TDP-43 Neuronal Inclusions Composed of Fused in Sarcoma Neuronal Intranuclear Inclusions Other Inclusions in Aging and Alzheimer's Disease See also Further Reading Neurons, Overview Abstract Introduction Neuron Morphology Synapses – Contact Points between Neurons Neuronal Cytoskeleton – Transport See also Further Reading Neuro-Oncology Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Neuro-Ophthalmology Abstract See also Further Reading Neuropathic Pain and Its Management Abstract Introduction Definitions Mechanisms of Neuropathic Pain Prevalence and Importance of Neuropathic Pain How Can Neuropathic Pain Be Detected? Management of Neuropathic Pain Future Directions See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Amyloid Abstract Amyloid Light-Chain Amyloid Neuropathy Familial Amyloid Polyneuropathy See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Autonomic Abstract Autoimmune Autonomic Ganglionopathy Guillain–Barré Syndrome Porphyria Drug-Induced Acute Autonomic Neuropathies Heavy Metal Poisoning Hereditary Sensory Neuropathy Management See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Diabetic Abstract Introduction Diabetic Cranial Neuropathies Diabetic Thoracoabdominal Neuropathy (Truncal Radiculopathy) Proximal Diabetic Neuropathy or Diabetic Polyradiculoplexopathy Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy Mononeuropathies Symmetrical Sensorimotor Polyneuropathy See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Entrapment Abstract Clinical Manifestations Predisposing Factors Pathophysiology Double Crush Syndrome Clinical Neurophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Iatrogenic Abstract Introduction Cranial Neuropathies Iatrogenic Plexopathies Limb Mononeuropathies Multiple Mononeuropathies Drug-Induced Polyneuropathies Treatment and Prevention See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Idiopathic Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Epidemiology Diagnostic Evaluation Management See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Instrumental Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Frequency of Entrapment Neuropathy in Instrumentalists Specific Nerve Entrapment Syndromes in Instrumentalists Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Nutritional Abstract Historical Background Thiamine (Vitamin B1 ) Deficiency Niacin Deficiency Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6 ) Deficiency and Toxicity Cobalamin (Vitamin B12 ) Deficiency Vitamin E Deficiency Strachan's Disease Alcoholic Neuropathy Critical Illness Neuropathy Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuropathies, Overview Abstract Introduction Classification Diagnosis History Pattern Recognition of Neuropathic Disorders Neurophysiological Tests Laboratory Data Treatment See also Further Reading Neuropathy, Anti-Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Abstract Introduction Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Neuropathy and Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Anti-Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein IgM Antibody Detection Clinical Features of the Neuropathy Laboratory Findings Electrophysiological Features Pathological Features Pathogenesis Therapy Conclusions See also Further Reading Neuropathy, Axillary Abstract Causes of Neuropathy Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Neuropathy, Toxic Abstract Basic Principles and Correlated Clinical Features Agents Associated with Peripheral Neuropathy Occupational and Environmental Agents Pharmaceutical Agents See also Further Reading Neuropeptides; Overview Abstract Introduction Synthesis of Neuropeptides Distribution of Neuropeptides in the Central Nervous System and Periphery Transport of Neuropeptides Neuropeptide Receptors Opioid Peptides and Their Receptors See also Further Reading Neurophysiology, Intraoperative Abstract Introduction Techniques Used Anesthetic Effects Interpretation of IONM Data See also Further Reading Neuropsychology, Developmental Abstract Introduction Moderating Factors Clinical Evaluations Report Writing Treatment Interventions Future Directions See also Further Reading Neuropsychology; Overview Abstract Definition History Purpose of Neuropsychological Assessment Overview of the Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment Conclusion See also Further Reading Neuroradiology, Diagnostic Abstract Introduction History and Development of Diagnostic Radiology Imaging Modalities Disease Categories Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests See also Further Reading Neurosyphilis Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment Monitoring Therapy Prevention See also Further Reading Neurotology Abstract See also Further Reading Neurotoxicology; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Neurotransmitter Receptors Abstract Introduction Neurotransmitters and Neuroactive Drugs Receptor Activation and Signal Transduction Neurotransmitter Receptors: Structure and Function Ionotropic Receptors: Ligand-Gated Ion Channels Metabotropic Receptors: G protein-Coupled Receptors Future Directions Summary See also Further Reading Relevant Website Neurotransmitters; Overview Abstract Introduction Neurotransmitter Hypothesis Classic Neurotransmitter Criteria Classic Neurotransmitters Nonclassic Neurotransmitters See also Further Reading Neurotrophic Signals, Axonal Transport of Abstract Introduction The Endo/Lysosomal System for Trafficking Neurotrophic Signals Neurotrophins and Neurotrophin Signaling Axonal Signaling by Neurotrophins: A Necessity and a Challenge Models for Long-Distance Axonal Transport of Neurotrophin Signals p75 Neurotrophin Receptor and Signaling Endosomes Nonneurotrophin Signaling Systems Employ Endocytosis and Trafficking Axonal Transport and Neurodegenerative Diseases Conclusion See also Further Reading Neurotrophins Abstract Introduction History Function Structure and Signaling Conclusion See also Further Reading Newton, Isaac Abstract See also Further Reading Nicotinic Receptors Abstract History Structure Function Clinical Relevance Current and Future Issues See also Further Reading Niemann–Pick Disease Abstract Introduction NPD Types A and B NPD Type C Pathogenesis Diagnosis Management See also Further Reading Nightmares Abstract Definitions Differential Diagnosis Conclusion See also Further Reading Nissl, Franz Abstract See also Further Reading Nitric Oxide Abstract Nitric Oxide Synthase Nitric Oxide as a Neuronal Messenger Molecular Targets of Nitric Oxide Protein Targets of Nitric Oxide Nitric Oxide as an Endogenous Neurotoxin See also Further Reading Nodes of Ranvier Abstract See also Further Reading Non-REM (Thalamocortical) Sleep Abstract Introduction Clinical Scoring Physiological Regulation Distinctive Pattern of Synchronous Discharge Two Key Forces Driving TCS Rethinking TCS for What It Is, Not for What It Is Not The Broader Ontology of TCS Avoiding Mereological Fallacies When Thinking About TCS See also Further Reading Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs; Acetaminophen Abstract Nonopioiod Pharmacological Therapy Acetaminophen Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Summary See also Further Reading Norepinephrine Abstract Introduction History Neurochemistry of Norepinephrine Adrenergic Receptors Effects of Norepinephrine Drugs that Mimic or Block the Effects of Norepinephrine See also Further Reading Nystagmus and Saccadic Intrusions and Oscillations Abstract Introduction Definitions Nystagmus Saccadic Intrusions and Oscillations Acknowledgments See also Further Reading O Obesity Abstract See also Further Reading Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder Abstract Introduction Differential Diagnosis Etiology Treatment See also Further Reading Occipital Lobe Abstract Introduction Visual Pathways: From the Retina to the Occipital Cortex Mapping Visual Areas: Retinotopy ‘What’ and ‘Where’ Processing Streams in the Human Brain Functional Subsystems Form Perception and Object Recognition Conclusions Further Reading Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III) Abstract Oculomotor Nerve Anatomy Oculomotor Nerve Palsy – Appearance Oculomotor Nerve Palsy – Common Etiologies Oculomotor Nerve Palsies – Uncommon Etiologies See also Further Reading Oldendorf, William Abstract Introduction Training and Career Neuroimaging See also Further Reading Olfactory Nerve (Cranial Nerve I) Abstract Introduction From Molecules to Receptors Cranial Nerve I: The Olfactory Nerve The Olfactory Bulb Olfactory Cortex The Accessory Olfactory System See also Further Reading Oligodendrocytes Abstract Introduction Development of Oligodendrocytes Control of Oligodendrocyte Number: Regulation of Differentiation and Survival Functions of Oligodendrocytes Oligodendrocytes in Disease Conclusion See also Further Reading Onufrowicz (Onuf), Bronislav Abstract Introduction Early Career The Pathological Institute See also Further Reading Ophthalmoplegia Abstract See also Further Reading Opioids Abstract Introduction Opioid Classification Opioid Effects Pharmacology Dosing and Conversion Tolerance, Dependence, and Addiction Withdrawal Conclusion See also Further Reading Oppenheim, Hermann Abstract See also Further Reading Optical Coherence Tomography Abstract Introduction How Does OCT Work? OCT in Retinal Diseases OCT in Optic Neuropathies OCT in MS See also Further Reading Optic Chiasm and Tract Abstract Introduction Clinical Correlations See also Further Reading Optic Nerve (Cranial Nerve II) Abstract Retina Optic Nerve Head Optic Nerve See also Further Reading Optic Nerve Disorders Abstract The Optic Nerve – Anatomic Overview Optic Neuropathy See also Further Reading Optic Neuritis Abstract Introduction Diagnosis Investigation Treatment Follow-Up Secondary Causes of Optic Neuritis See also Further Reading Optokinetic Nystagmus Abstract Optokinetic Nystagmus See also Further Reading Organic Acid Disorders Abstract Introduction Cerebral Organic Acid Disorders Branched-Chain Organic Acid Disorders See also Further Reading Organic Solvents Abstract See also Further Reading Organophosphates and Carbamates Abstract See also Further Reading Orthostatic Hypotension Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Definition Diagnosis Management See also Further Reading Osler–Weber–Rendu Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Osler, William Abstract See also Further Reading P Paget's Disease Abstract Incidence Signs and Symptoms Diagnostic Testing Treatment See also Further Reading Pain, Acute and Postoperative Abstract Introduction Opioids Aniline Derivatives (Acetaminophen and Paracetamol) Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Anticonvulsants N -Methyl D-Aspartate Receptor Antagonists α 2 -Agonists Other Analgesics Multimodal Analgesia Regional and Neuraxial Analgesia Peripheral Nerve Blockade Neuraxial Analgesia Other Peripheral Nerve Blocks Nonoperative Acute Pain See also Further Reading Pain: Antidepressant, Anticonvulsants Abstract Introduction Mechanisms and Pharmacology Antidepressant Mechanisms of Action Anticonvulsant Mechanisms of Action Trial Results as a Proxy for Clinical Effectiveness Pharmacokinetics, Safety, and Dosing Summary See also Further Reading Pain, Arthritic Abstract Introduction Osteoarthritis Arthritis of the Spine Rheumatoid Arthritis Gout and Pseudogout Summary See also Further Reading Pain, Autonomic Dysfunction and Abstract Background Disorders of Pain Perception and Autonomic Function Increased Pain Phenotypes See also Further Reading Pain; Basic Mechanisms Abstract The Nociceptor Response to a Variety of Stimulus Modalities Two Major Classes of the Nociceptor Ascending Pathways Descending Pathways Sensitization of Peripheral Nociceptor Terminals Central Sensitization See also Further Reading Pain, Cancer Abstract Introduction Select Cancer Pain States Conclusion See also Further Reading Pain, Children and Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Impacts of Pain Experience Measurement Treatment Conclusions See also Further Reading Pain; Complementary and Alternative Therapies Abstract Acupuncture Chiropractic Massage Therapy Herbal Medicine Other Complementary and Alternative Medicine Options Comment See also Further Reading Pain, Deafferentation Abstract Clinical Features Mechanisms of Deafferentation Pain Treatment See also Further Reading Pain, Impaired Communicative Ability and Abstract Introduction Pain and Cognitive Impairment Pain Assessment in People with Cognitive Impairments Other Populations with Limited Ability to Communicate Conclusions See also Further Reading Pain Management; Future Directions Abstract Introduction Future Directions in the Diagnosis and Evaluation of Pain Conditions Future Directions in Pharmacotherapy for Pain Future Directions in Interventional Therapies for Pain Summary See also Further Reading Pain, Nociceptive vs. Neuropathic Abstract Introduction Nociceptive Pain Neuropathic Pain See also Further Reading Pain, Older Adults and Abstract Prevalence of Chronic Pain in Older Adults Impact of Chronic Pain in Older Adults Aging of Pain Perception Pain Perception in Demented Patients Assessment of Pain in Older Adults Management of Pain in Older Adults Conclusion See also Further Reading Pain, Pelvic Abstract Introduction Diagnoses and Etiologies General Guidelines for Diagnostic Evaluation General Guidelines for Treatment See also Further Reading Pain; Psychiatric and Psychological Interventions Abstract Introduction Psychiatric Interventions Antipsychotics Psychological Interventions See also Further Reading Pain Relief in Substance Abusers Abstract Definitions – Addiction, Substance Abuse, and Substance Dependence Prevalence of Substance Abuse Assessment Monitoring and Treatment See also Further Reading Pain, Spine and Radicular Abstract Introduction Anatomy of the Spine Assessment and Management of Spine and Radicular Pain Conclusion See also Further Reading Pain; Surgical Management Abstract Introduction Surgical Procedures Principles of Preoperative Decision Making Surgery for Trigeminal Neuralgia Conclusion See also Further Reading Pallidotomy Abstract Indications Physiological Rationale for Pallidotomy History and Surgical Technique Complications Results Alternative to Pallidotomy Pallidotomy for Dystonia and Hemiballism See also Further Reading PANDAS-Like Illnesses Papez, James W Abstract See also Further Reading Papilledema Abstract Introduction Causes Recommended Workup Treatment See also Further Reading Paralysis Abstract See also Further Reading Paraneoplastic Neurologic Disorders: Central Abstract Paraneoplastic Cerebellar Degeneration Paraneoplastic Encephalomyelitis Paraneoplastic Sensory Neuronopathy Paraneoplastic Opsoclonus–Myoclonus Paraneoplastic Stiff-Person Syndrome Paraneoplastic Limbic and Brainstem Encephalitis Progressive Encephalitis with Rigidity and Myoclonus See also Further Reading Paraparesis and Paraplegia Abstract See also Further Reading Paraquat and Parkinson's Disease (PD) Abstract The Proposed Contribution of Environmental Exposures: The Paraquat Connection How Paraquat Enters the Brain Paraquat Specifically Targets the Same Midbrain Neurons Preferentially Affected in Parkinson's Disease Paraquat Exposure also Results in Increased α-Synuclein Aggregation, an Additional Hallmark of the Human Disorder Paraquat Neurotoxicity Involves Oxidative Stress Oxidatively-Induced Pathways Involved in Paraquat Neurotoxicity Paraquat Neurotoxicity Involves Neuroinflammatory Events Paraquat, α-Synuclein, and Other Parkinson's Disease-Related Proteins Summary See also Further Reading Parasites and Neurological Disease; Overview Abstract Introduction Protozoal Diseases Cestode Infections Nematode Infections Trematode Infections See also Further Reading Parasomnias Abstract Pathophysiology Common Parasomnias Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation Conclusion See also Further Reading Parasympathetic System; Overview Abstract Introduction General Features Parasympathetic Output to Cranial Effectors Vagal Pathways Parasympathetic Control of the Pelvic Organs See also Further Reading Paresis Abstract See also Further Reading Parietal Lobe Abstract Anatomy Clinical Deficits Associated with Parietal Lobe Injury Behavioral Consequences of Parietal Injury: Dominant Hemisphere Behavioral Consequences of Parietal Injury: Nondominant Hemisphere Behavioral Consequences of Bilateral Parietal Injury See also Further Reading Parkinsonism Abstract Drug-Induced Parkinsonism Neurodegenerative Disorders Miscellaneous See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Parkinson, James Abstract The Shaking Palsy (Parkinson's Disease) Reform of the Lunacy Acts Politics and Social Advocacy Paleontology Advice to those Considering a Career in Medicine See also Further Reading Parkinson's Disease Abstract Historical Perspective Prevalence Clinical Picture Diagnosis Etiology Treatment Other Management Aspects See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Parkinson's Disease; Epidemiology Abstract Introduction Disease Frequency Risk Factors Genetic Forms of Parkinsonism Conclusion See also Further Reading Paroxysmal Movement Disorders Abstract See also Further Reading Pasteur, Louis Abstract Introduction Career Stereochemistry: The Tartaric Acid Problem Fermentation Biogenesis Versus Spontaneous Generation Pasteurization Origins of Asepsis and Antisepsis Immunology and Vaccination Rabies Vaccine See also Further Reading Pavlov, Ivan Abstract Career The Conditioned Reflex The Nobel Prize and Pavlov's Legacy See also Further Reading Peduncular Hallucinosis Abstract Description and Clinical Features Etiology and Pathogenesis Course and Treatment See also Further Reading Pelizaeus–Merzbacher Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Phenotypes along the Pelizaeus–Merzbacher/Spastic Paraplegia 2 Disease Spectrum Neuroimaging Differential Diagnosis PLP1 and Proteolipid Protein-1 Biology Pelizaeus–Merzbacher Disease Molecular Genetics and Pathogenesis Genotype–Phenotype Correlation Molecular Testing Treatment See also Further Reading Penfield, Wilder Abstract Introduction Education New York Period Montreal Neurological Institute Contributions Second Career Honors and Awards See also Further Reading Perception and Perceptual Disorders Abstract See also Further Reading Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep (PLMS) Abstract Introduction History Epidemiology and Clinical Features of Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep Polysomnographic Features of Periodic Limb Movements Treatment See also Further Reading Peripheral Nerve Vasculitis, Immunology of Abstract General Aspects of Vasculitis Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Autoantibody-Associated Vasculitis Cryoglobulinemia and Hepatitis C-Associated Vasculitis Nonsystemic Vasculitic Neuropathy See also Further Reading Peroxisomal Diseases Abstract Introduction Peroxisome Biogenesis Metabolic Role of Peroxisomes Human Peroxisomal Disorders Peroxisome Biogenesis Disorders Single Peroxisomal Enzyme Deficiencies See also Further Reading Persistent Vegetative State Abstract See also Further Reading Personality Disorders Abstract Introduction Normal Personality Psychopathology Prevalence Comorbidity with Other Psychiatric Disorders Treatment Considerations Likely Changes to Personality Nomenclature See also Further Reading Phantom Limb Pain Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology of Phantom Pain Pharmacological Management of Phantom Limb Pain Key Points See also Further Reading Pharmacology, Antipsychotic Abstract Indications Mechanisms of Action ‘Typicals’ and ‘Atypicals’ Clozapine Monitoring New Directions See also Further Reading Phenylketonuria (PKU) Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Basic Defect Diagnosis Treatment Maternal Phenylketonuria Syndrome Biopterin Disorders See also Further Reading Phobias Abstract Introduction Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia) Specific Phobia Agoraphobia See also Further Reading Phonology Abstract Introduction Developmental Disorders of Phonology Acquired Phonological Disorders Distinction from Impairments of Articulation Neural Basis of Phonological Processing Conclusion See also Further Reading Phrenic Nerve Abstract Introduction Anatomy and Function Causes of Phrenic Nerve Dysfunction Evaluation of Phrenic Neuropathy Differential Diagnosis Treatment of Phrenic Neuropathy See also Further Reading Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Abstract Biomedical and Biopsychosocial Models of the Treatment of Pain Medication Therapy Professionals Physical Modalities Multidisciplinary Management of Pain Interdisciplinary Management of Pain Summary See also Further Reading Pick, Arnold Abstract Introduction Career Contributions to Behavioral Neurology Pick's Disease Impact and Legacy See also Further Reading Pituitary Tumors Abstract Introduction Symptoms and Signs Diagnosis Treatment Specific Pituitary Tumors See also Further Reading Placebo Effect Abstract Definition Mechanisms Pharmacology Role of Prefrontal Lobes Hidden Treatments Physical Performance See also Further Reading POEMS Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Laboratory Findings Diagnostic Criteria Neuropathological Findings Therapy See also Further Reading Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Abstract See also Further Reading Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Abstract Background Physico-Chemical Properties Environmental Contamination and Human Exposure Effects on Human Health Effects in Laboratory Animals Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgment See also Further Reading Polymyalgia Rheumatica Abstract Epidemiology Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Pathology Clinical Manifestations Differential Diagnosis See also Further Reading Polysomnography, Clinical Abstract Introduction Clinical Focus Technology Indications Correlation with Other Assessment Tools See also Further Reading Polysomnography; Technique Abstract History Procedure Electroencephalogram Electrooculogram Electromyogram Electrocardiogram Monitoring Respiration During Sleep Blood Gas Measurement Body Position Endoesophageal pH Digital Systems Portable Monitoring Conclusion See also Further Reading Pons Abstract Introduction Functional Neuroanatomy Clinical Aspects See also Further Reading Pontine Nuclei Abstract Introduction Projection Neurons and Interneurons Origin of Corticopontine Fibers Lamellar and Somatotopic Patterns in the Pontine Nuclei Subcortical Inputs Pontocerebellar Connections Clinical Aspects See also Further Reading Porphyria Abstract Introduction Heme Biosynthesis Hepatic Porphyrias The Erythopoietic Porphyrias See also Further Reading Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Abstract See also Further Reading Postictal Manifestations Abstract Introduction Postictal Functional Deficits Postictal Signs Mediated by the Autonomic Nervous System Postictal Headache Postictal Neuropsychological and Behavioral Manifestations Physiological Findings See also Further Reading Post-Polio Syndrome Abstract Clinical Features Diagnosis Neuromuscular Evaluation Pathogenesis Management Prognosis Quality of Life See also Further Reading Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Abstract Introduction Assessment for Screening Assessment for Diagnosis Semistructured Diagnostic Interviews Psychological Tests and Patient-Reported Outcome Measures Diagnostic Evaluation for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Treatment Planning Future Directions See also Further Reading Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS) Abstract Introduction Prevalence Clinical Features Pathophysiology Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Management See also Further Reading Pregnancy and Neurological Disorders Abstract Introduction Hormones of Pregnancy Seizures and Pregnancy Migraine and Pregnancy Meningioma and Pregnancy Pregnancy and Multiple Sclerosis Maternal Depression Maternal Stress Maternal Cognition See also Further Reading Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma Abstract Epidemiology Histology and Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Delayed Neurotoxicity Conclusion See also Further Reading Problem Solving Abstract Introduction Brain Regions Involved in Problem Solving Modern Theories and Models of Problem Solving Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Procháska, Georg (Jiří) Abstract See also Further Reading Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) Abstract The Organism, JC Virus Development of the Disease from Latent Infection Radiological Diagnosis Polymerase Chain Reaction Detection of Virus in the Cerebrospinal Fluid Neuropathology Prognosis Recent Basic Research Future Studies See also Further Reading Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) Abstract See also Further Reading Prosopagnosia Abstract Historical Background Why Faces? How Selective is Prosopagnosia? Conclusions See also Further Reading Pseudotumor Cerebri (PTC) Abstract Epidemiology Etiology Clinical Manifestations Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Psychiatry Diagnosis Abstract Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and Descriptivism The Problem of Complex Systems (e.g., the Brain) Research Domain Criteria Future Directions See also Further Reading Psychogenic Unresponsiveness Abstract Definition Classification Differential Diagnosis Pathophysiology Management See also References Psychosocial and Demographic Factors in Pain Abstract Introduction Psychosocial and Demographic Factors Involved in the Experience of Pain Disparities in Pain Management See also Further Reading Psychotherapy, Psychodynamic Abstract Major Theoretical Influences Shifting Relationship with Psychiatry Setting the Frame Who Can Benefit? See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Ptosis Abstract See also Further Reading Pulvinotomy Abstract See also Further Reading Pupillary Disorders, Afferent Abstract See also Further Reading Pupillary Disorders, Efferent Abstract See also Further Reading Pupils Abstract Introduction Characteristics of Pupillary Responses Iris Structure and Innervation Parasympathetic Pathways Sympathetic Pathways See also Further Reading Purkinje, Jan Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Putnam, James Jackson Abstract Career Putnam's Acroparaesthia or Syndrome (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome) Beri-beri among Fishermen in Temperate Zones Putnam–Dana Syndrome (Subacute Combined Degeneration) Psychoanalysis See also Further Reading Q Quadriplegia Abstract See also Further Reading Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART) Abstract See also Further Reading Quincke, Heinrich Irenäus Abstract See also Further Reading R Rabies Virus Abstract Introduction Virology Pathogenesis Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Treatment Prevention See also Further Reading Radiculopathy Abstract Radiculopathy Anatomy Historical Aspects Risk Factors and Epidemiology of Radiculopathy Pathophysiology of Radiculopathy Clinical Diagnosis Clinical Localization of Radiculopathy Electrodiagnosis of Radiculopathy Neuroradiology of the Spine Management of Radiculopathy Thoracic Radiculopathy Chronic Pain Syndromes Related to Spine Pain and Radiculopathy See also Further Reading Radiculopathy, Cervical Abstract Introduction Nonoperative Management Surgical Management Operative Techniques Posterior Approach Anterior Approach See also Further Reading Radiculopathy, Lumbosacral Abstract Lumbar Nerve Root Compression Differential Diagnosis of Lumbar Radiculopathy Diagnostic Imaging for Lumbar Radiculopathy Nonsurgical Treatment of Lumbar Radiculopathy Surgical Treatment of Lumbar Radiculopathy Caused by Degenerative Disease See also Further Reading Radiosurgery Abstract See also Further Reading Radiosurgery – Gamma Knife and Cyberknife Abstract See also Further Reading Radiotherapy and Antineoplastic Drugs, Neurological Complications of Abstract Neurological Complications of Radiotherapy Neurological Complications of Chemotherapy and Other Antineoplastic Drugs See also Further Reading Ramón y Cajal, Santiago Abstract Introduction Application of the Golgi Stain Paladin of the Neuron Theory Ramón y Cajal's Legacy See also Further Reading Recklinghausen, Friedrich Daniel von Abstract Introduction von Recklinghausen's Disease (Neurofibromatosis Type 1) Other Contributions See also Further Reading Reflexes, Spinal Cord and Blink Abstract See also Further Reading Refractory Period Abstract See also Further Reading Remak, Robert Abstract See also Further Reading REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep Abstract See also Further Reading REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Abstract Pathophysiology Clinical Features Associated Conditions Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Respiration Abstract Introduction Central Component of Breathing Peripheral Component of Breathing Breathing Abnormalities See also Further Reading Respiratory Chain Disorders Abstract Introduction Clinical Features of Respiratory Chain Disorders Diagnosis of Respiratory Chain Disorders Classification of Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Disorders Therapy for Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Disorders See also Further Reading Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) Abstract Introduction Definitions and Diagnosis Epidemiology, Etiology, and Pathogenesis Management Resources See also Further Reading Retina Abstract See also Further Reading Rett's Syndrome Abstract Clinical Characteristics Variant Phenotypic Expression Clinical Profile Rett's Syndrome in Males What is Known about Rett's Syndrome? Molecular Genetics of Rett's Syndrome Pervasive Growth Failure Brain Development in Rett's Syndrome Variable Clinical Expression Long-Term Management and Survival See also Further Reading Revascularization, Cerebral Abstract See also Further Reading Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Features Brain Imaging Vascular Imaging Differential Diagnosis and Approach to Diagnosis Management Course and Outcome See also Further Reading Reye's Syndrome Abstract See also Further Reading Rhabdomyolysis and Myoglobinuria Abstract See also Further Reading Rhizotomy Abstract Rhizotomy for Trigeminal Neuralgia Rhizotomy for Pain Rhizotomy for Spasticity See also Further Reading Rickettsial Infections Abstract Introduction Rickettsial Ecology Human Disease Neurological Manifestations Diagnosis Therapy Prevention See also Further Reading Riddoch, George Abstract World War I World War II Riddoch at Nuremberg: The Rudolf Hess Affair The Stress of War See also Further Reading Rigidity Abstract See also Further Reading Rippling Muscle Disease Abstract Inherited Rippling Muscle Disease Caveolin-3 Phenotypic Variability Symptoms and Signs Immune-Mediated Rippling Muscle Disease (with Myasthenia Gravis) Autoantibodies with Rippling Muscles and Myasthenia Gravis Summary See also Further Reading Risk Assessment for Suicide and Violence Abstract Introduction What is a Violence or Suicide Risk Assessment? Violence Risk Assessment Suicide and Self-Harm Risk Assessment Conclusions See also Further Reading Rodbell, Martin Abstract Introduction Career First and Second Messengers Signal Transduction G protein See also Further Reading Rolando, Luigi Abstract See also Further Reading Romberg, Moritz Abstract Career Romberg's Sign See also Further Reading Rosettes and Pseudorosettes Abstract See also Further Reading Rotenone Abstract Introduction Mode of Toxicity Toxic Effects Routes of Exposure Neurological Effects Rotenoids See also Further Reading Rubella Virus Abstract Rubella Virus Molecular Aspects of the Virus Historical Information Clinical Syndromes Treatment and Prevention See also Further Reading Rusk, Howard A Abstract Introduction Development of Comprehensive Multidisciplinary Neurorehabilitation The Benefits of Comprehensive Neurorehabilitation Development of Civilian Rehabilitation Programs See also Further Reading S Sabin, Albert Abstract Career See also Further Reading Sachs, Bernard Abstract See also Further Reading Salk, Jonas Abstract Career See also Further Reading Saphenous Nerve Abstract Introduction Anatomy Saphenous Neuropathy Clinical Symptoms Etiology Diagnosis See also Further Reading Sarcoidosis Abstract Introduction Clinical Features of Neurosarcoidosis Diagnosis Diagnostic Evaluation Neurodiagnostic Testing Diagnostic Certainty Treatment Clinical Course and Prognosis See also Further Reading Schistosomiasis Abstract Life Cycle General Aspects of Schistosomal Infection Schistosomiasis of the Central Nervous System Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment Prognosis Prevention See also Further Reading Schizophrenia/Psychosis Abstract Introduction Differential Diagnosis Primary Psychosis Schizophrenia and Schizophreniform Disorder Schizoaffective Disorder Delusional Disorder Brief Psychotic Disorder See also Further Reading Schwann Cell Immunology Abstract Introduction Antigen Presentation and Immune Initiation Autoimmune Mechanisms in Neuropathy Schwann Cells and Immune Regulation Novel Schwann Cell Autoantibody Targets in Autoimmune Demyelinating Disease See also Further Reading Schwann, Theodor Abstract Education and Training The Cell Theory Later Academic Career See also Further Reading Sciatic Nerve Abstract See also Further Reading Scoliosis Abstract Idiopathic Scoliosis Congenital and Neurogenic Scoliosis Neuromuscular Scoliosis Treatment See also Further Reading Secondary Axotomy Abstract Introduction Axonal Pathology Consequences of Secondary Axotomy See also Further Reading Séguin, Édouard Abstract Early Career in France Development of Special Education in the United States Medical Thermometry See also Further Reading Seguin, Edward Constant Abstract Localization of Spinal and Cerebral Disease Other Contributions Tragedy and Sorrow See also Further Reading Self-Awareness Abstract Historical Context Definition Clinical Conceptual Models of Self-Awareness Neurological Correlates of Self-Awareness Determination of Deficits in Self-Awareness Practical Implications See also Further Reading Sensation Abstract Definition Anatomy and Physiology of Sensation Pathological Sensations See also Further Reading Sensation, Assessment of Abstract Introduction Bedside Tests of Sensation Quantitative Sensory Testing Nerve Conduction Studies and Clinical Neurophysiology Near-Nerve Recordings Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Nerve Fiber Density Nerve Biopsy Conclusion See also Further Reading Sensory Neuronopathy, Paraneoplastic Abstract Introduction History Clinical Features Laboratory Features Histopathology Pathogenesis Treatment See also Further Reading Sensory Receptors; Overview Abstract Introduction Mechanoreceptors Thermal Receptors Pain Receptors Other Receptors Sensory Perception See also Further Reading Sensory System; Overview Abstract Sensory Modalities Dorsal Root Ganglion and Plexuses Processing and Perception of Sensory Information Conclusion See also Further Reading Sensory Testing, Quantitative Abstract See also Further Reading Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy Abstract Definition Clinical and Laboratory Features Pathology Pathogenesis Prognosis See also Further Reading Serotonin Abstract See also Further Reading Sex Headache, Primary Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Pathophysiology Clinical Features Diagnosis Prognosis Management See also Further Reading Sexual Dysfunction Abstract Introduction Neurophysiology of Sexual Function History and Examination Primary Versus Secondary Sexual Dysfunction Primary Sexual Dysfunction Secondary Sexual Dysfunction Ancillary Evaluations Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Sherrington, Charles Scott Abstract Sherrington, Charles Scott See also Further Reading Shunts, Neurosurgical Abstract Ventricular Shunts Shunt Valves When Shunts Fail Shunt Infections Subdural Shunts Cyst and Syrinx Shunts Other Ventricular Shunts Surgical Implantation of Shunts Conclusion See also Further Reading Silent Period Abstract Introduction Mixed Nerve Silent Period Procedure Physiological Mechanisms Clinical Applications Cutaneous Silent Period Procedure Physiological Mechanisms Clinical Application See also Further Reading Single-Fiber EMG Abstract Introduction Fiber Density Neuromuscular Jitter Normal Jitter Values Technical Considerations Single-Fiber Electromyography in Myasthenia Gravis Single-Fiber Electromyography in Neuropathy Single-Fiber Electromyography in Myopathy Other Uses for Single-Fiber Electromyography See also Further Reading Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) Abstract Introduction Physical Principles Brain Perfusion Imaging with Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography Imaging of Neurotransmitter Systems See also Further Reading Sjögren–Larsson Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Features and Pathology Genetics Biochemistry Biochemical Pathogenesis and Potential Biomarkers Diagnosis Therapy See also Further Reading Skull Abstract See also Further Reading Sleep and Epilepsy Abstract Introduction Seizures Across the Sleep–Wake Cycle Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Epilepsy Effects of Epilepsy Therapies on Sleep Sleep Organization in Epilepsy Differentiating Nocturnal Seizures from Parasomnias and Other Paroxysmal Events Conclusions See also Further Reading Sleep, Condition of Abstract Definition Sleep Stages Neuronal Mechanisms for Sleep See also Further Reading Sleep Disorders Abstract Introduction Sleep Disorders: Clarification and Diagnosis Evaluation of Sleep Complaints The Insomnias The Hypersomnias Sleep-Related Movement Disorders The Sleep Apnea Syndromes The Parasomnias Acknowledgments See also Further Reading Sleep Medicine, History of Abstract See also Further Reading Sleep; Overview Abstract Sleep Stages in Normal Adults Sleep Architecture in Normal Adults Ontogeny of Sleep Sleep Regulation Sleep Requirements Sleep Deprivation and its Effects Other Factors Affecting Sleep Theories of Sleep See also Further Reading Sleep Paralysis Abstract See also Further Reading Sleep–Wake Cycle Abstract See also Further Reading Slit Ventricle Syndrome Abstract Treatment Current Classification Current Treatment Paradigm Conclusion See also Further Reading Smell Abstract Sense of Smell Structure of the Olfactory System Central Olfactory Pathway Olfactory Signal Transduction Disorders of Olfaction Evaluation of Olfaction Biomimetic Artificial Nose See also Further Reading Smith–Lemli–Opitz Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Pathophysiology Management and Treatment Future Challenges/Research See also Further Reading Smoking and Nicotine Abstract See also Further Reading Snake Venoms Snoring Abstract Introduction Epidemiology and Risk Factors Pathophysiology Health Consequences Treatment See also Further Reading Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Abstract Recording Technique Short-Latency Upper Extremity Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Medium- and Long-Latency Somatosensory Evoked Potentials of Upper Extremity Stimulation Lower Extremity Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Clinical Application of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials See also Further Reading Sömmerring, Samuel Thomas von Abstract Introduction Career Selected Works See also Further Reading Spasms Abstract See also Further Reading Spasticity Abstract Pathophysiology Clinical Presentation Spasticity and Cerebral Palsy Medical Treatment Surgical Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Speech Disorders; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Sperry, Roger Abstract Introduction Career Nerve Regeneration and Plasticity Equipotentiality Split-Brain Studies See also Further Reading Sphincter Disturbances Abstract Anatomy and Neurophysiology of Anal Canal Anorectal Dysfunction Evaluation of Anal Sphincter Function and Electromyographic Studies See also Further Reading Spiller, William Gibson Abstract Introduction Career The Spiller–Frazier Operation for Trigeminal Neuralgia Cordotomy Clinical Care and Teaching See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Anatomy Abstract Introduction Gross Anatomy Internal Organization Functional Considerations of Spinal Cord Anatomy See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Diseases Abstract Introduction Spinal Cord Diseases with Prominent Upper Motor Neuron Findings Spinal Cord Diseases with Prominent Lower Motor Neuron Findings Spinal Cord Diseases with Prominent Upper And Lower Motor Neuron Findings Spinal Cord Diseases with More Prominent Sensory Findings Conclusion See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Injury Without Radiographic Abnormality Abstract See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Transection Abstract Introduction Pathophysiology Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis Treatment Spinal Cord Transection as Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Tumors, Biology of Abstract Introduction Clinical Presentation Pathology Management of Intramedullary Spinal Cord Tumors Conclusion See also Further Reading Spinal Cord Tumors, Treatment of Abstract Metastatic Tumors Astrocytomas Ependymomas Myxopapillary Ependymomas Spinal Hemangioblastomas Spinal Meningiomas Nerve Sheath Tumors: Schwannomas and Neurofibromas See also Further Reading Spinal Muscular Atrophy Abstract Molecular Genetics of Spinal Muscular Atrophy Diagnostic Classification Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMN1): Signs and Symptoms Laboratory Evaluation Differential Diagnosis Non-5q Spinal Muscular Atrophies Prevention Management of Spinal Muscular Atrophy Systemic Manifestations of SMN1 Mutation Prognosis Future Therapies Summary See also Further Reading Spinal Roots Abstract Dorsal and Ventral Roots Anatomical Structure Separation of Efferent and Afferent Functions Dorsal and Ventral Root Fibers Segregation of Dorsal Root Fibers by Size Myotomes and Dermatomes See also Further Reading Spinal Stroke Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Spine Surgery, Minimally Invasive Abstract See also Further Reading Spitzka, Edward Charles Abstract Introduction Career Promoting the Reform of Institutional Psychiatry (1878–80) The Insanity Defense of Charles Guiteau (1881) The Execution of William Kemmler (1890) See also Further Reading Relevant Website Spondylosis, Cervical and Lumbar Abstract See also Further Reading Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar Abstract See also Further Reading Startle Syndromes Abstract See also Further Reading Status Epilepticus Abstract Introduction History Epidemiology Etiology Classification Electroencephalography of Status Epilepticus Pathophysiology Management Morbidity, Mortality, and Prognosis See also Further Reading Stem Cells and Neurogenesis Abstract Biology of Stem Cells Stem Cells in the Adult Brain Adult Neurogenesis in the Dentate Gyrus and Subventricular Zone Neuronal Differentiation and Activity-Dependent Integration Regulation of Adult Neurogenesis Functional Significance of Newborn Neurons Disease Relevance of Adult Neurogenesis Future Directions See also Further Reading Stenosis, Lumbar Abstract See also Further Reading Stereotactic Biopsy Abstract See also Further Reading Stereotactic Surgery Abstract See also Further Reading Steroids, Overview Abstract Introduction Steroidogenic Enzymes Electron Transfer Proteins Tropic Hormone Stimulation and Acute Regulation of Steroidogenesis Expression of Steroidogenic Enzymes in the Nervous System See also Further Reading Stiff Person Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Electrophysiology–Neuropathology–Pathophysiology Therapy See also Further Reading Stroke; Epidemiology Abstract Deaths Illness and Disability Risk Factors and Prevention Conclusions See also Further Reading Stroke Imaging/Diffusion–Perfusion MRI Abstract See also Further Reading Stroke; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Stroke Risk Factors Abstract Introduction Risk and Classification of Risk Factors Stroke Risk Markers and Risk Factors Conclusion See also Further Reading Stroke Units Abstract Justification for Stroke Units What is a Stroke Unit? See also Further Reading Stupor Abstract See also Further Reading Subacute Necrotizing Encephalomyelopathy Abstract Introduction Biochemistry and Genetics Clinical Features Pathology Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Subdural Empyema Abstract See also Further Reading Substance Abuse Abstract Introduction Alcohol Drug Abuse Stimulants Heroin (and Other Opioids) DSM-V Update See also Further Reading Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Abstract Introduction Risk Factors for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome The Terminal Pathway to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and Sleep Arousal Vulnerability of Preterm Infants Recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Conclusion See also Further Reading Superior Colliculus Abstract Introduction Superficial Layers Deep Layers Functional Significance See also Further Reading Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) Abstract See also Further Reading Suprascapular Nerve Abstract Anatomy Clinical Manifestations Disorders Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Sweating Disorders Abstract Introduction Hyperhidrosis Anhidrosis See also Further Reading Swedenborg, Emanuel Abstract See also Further Reading Sydenham's Chorea Abstract See also Further Reading Sydenham, Thomas Abstract Career Sydenham's Chorea See also Further Reading Sylvius, Franciscus Abstract See also Further Reading Sympathectomy Abstract See also Further Reading Sympathetic System; Overview Abstract Introduction General Features Preganglionic Sympathetic Output Sympathetic Ganglia Functions of the Sympathetic System Clinical Correlations See also Further Reading Syncope Abstract Definition Frequency Mechanism and Classification History and Physical Examination Investigations Therapy See also Further Reading Syringomyelia Abstract Introduction Etiology Pathogenesis Trauma Clinical Presentation Evaluation Treatment Summary See also Further Reading Syrinx Abstract See also Further Reading T Tabes Dorsalis Abstract See also Further Reading Takaki, Kanehiro Abstract See also Further Reading Takayasu's Arteritis Abstract See also Further Reading Tardive Dyskinesia Abstract See also Further Reading Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome Abstract Introduction Anatomy Etiology Clinical Features Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment See also Further Reading Taste Abstract Introduction: The Importance of Taste Taste and the Concept of Flavor The Taste Bud Central Connections to the Brainstem and Cortex Saliva and Taste Disorders of Taste Treatments See also Further Reading Taylor, John Madison Abstract See also Further Reading Tay–Sachs Disease Abstract See also Further Reading Temporal Lobes Abstract Introduction Conditions that Result in Injury to the Temporal Lobes Do the Right and Left Temporal Lobe Play Different Roles in Cognition? Relationship between Cognition and Extent of Temporal Lobe Damage Memory Semantic Memory and Language Auditory Perception Emotion and Motivation Visual Perception Olfaction Differences between Diseases and Conditions Functional Neuroimaging See also Further Reading Temporomandibular Disorders Abstract Evaluation of Patients Diagnosis of Temporomandibular Muscle Pain and Joint Pain Management Strategies Further Reading Temporomandibular Disorders and Headache Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Etiology Myofascial Pain Temporomandibular Disorders and Headaches – The Convergence Hypothesis Treating Headache by Targeting Temporomandibular Disorders Conclusion See also Future Reading Tetanus Abstract Signs and Symptoms Epidemiology Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Tetany Abstract See also Further Reading Tetrodotoxin Abstract Brief History of Studies of Puffer Fish Toxin – Tetrodotoxin Chemistry of Tetrodotoxin Sources and Distributions Animals Containing Tetrodotoxin are Resistant to Tetrodotoxin Intoxication with Tetrodotoxin Mechanism of Action of Tetrodotoxin on the Sodium Channel Tetrodotoxin-Resistant Sodium Channels Therapeutic Application of Tetrodotoxin See also Further Reading Thalamotomy Abstract Introduction Historical Overview Current Use of Thalamotomy Conclusion See also Further Reading Thalamus Abstract Overview Major Components Thalamic Nuclear Organization Classification of Thalamic Nuclear Groups Physiological Response Patterns See also Further Reading Therapeutic Neuroradiology; Angioplasty and Stenting Abstract Introduction Arterial Disease See also Further Reading Therapeutic Neuroradiology; Intra-Arterial Thrombolysis Abstract Introduction Intra-Arterial Thrombolysis Mechanical Thrombectomy or Aspiration Conclusion See also Further Reading Thermoregulatory Sweating Abstract Introduction Neuronal Mechanisms of Thermoregulatory Sweating Thermoregulatory Sweating Effectors: The Sweat Glands Disorders of Thermoregulatory Sweating Thermoregulatory Sweat Test See also Further Reading Thiamine (Vitamin B1 ) and Beri-Beri Abstract Introduction Pyruvate Decarboxylase α-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogenase Branched-Chain α-Ketoacid Dehydrogenase Transketolase Thiamine Deficiency States Thiamine Dependency States See also Further Reading Thoracic Nerve, Long Abstract Anatomy and Function Causes of Long Thoracic Nerve Dysfunction by Location Evaluation of Long Thoracic Nerve Dysfunction Prognosis and Treatment of Long Thoracic Nerve Palsy See also Further Reading Thoracic Outlet Syndromes Abstract Arterial Vascular Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Venous Vascular Thoracic Outlet Syndrome True Neurological Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Disputed Neurological Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Traumatic Neurovascular Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Conclusions See also Further Reading Thoracic Spine Stabilization Abstract Introduction Surgical Indication Patient Selection and Preoperative Management Surgical Approaches Instrumentation and Arthrodesis Surgical Adjuncts Surgical Complications Postoperative Management See also Further Reading Thunderclap Headache Abstract Introduction Primary Thunderclap Headache Diagnostic Evaluation Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome See also Further Reading Thyroid and Thyroid Disorders Abstract Introduction Hyperthyroidism (Thyrotoxicosis) Thyroid Ophthalmopathy Hypothyroidism (Myxedema) Hashimoto's Encephalopathy See also Further Reading Tibial Nerve Abstract Introduction Anatomy Electrodiagnostic Evaluation Clinical Syndromes See also Further Reading Tic Disorders Abstract See also Further Reading Tinel, Jules Abstract Introduction Tinel's Sign (Hoffmann–Tinel Sign) Pheochromocytoma (Labbé's Syndrome) World War II See also Further Reading Relevant Website Tinnitus Abstract Introduction Mechanism Subjective Tinnitus Objective Tinnitus Pulsatile Tinnitus Clinical Evaluation Management See also Further Reading Todd, Robert Bentley Abstract See also Further Reading Toxic Encephalopathy Abstract Definition Clinical Picture Pathology Pathogenesis Treatment See also Further Reading Toxoplasmosis Abstract Introduction Transmission Infection and Disease of Humans Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis See also Further Reading Transient Epileptic Amnesia Abstract Introduction Transient Epileptic Amnesia: Development of the Concept Clinical Features of Transient Epileptic Amnesia Differential Diagnosis of Transient Epileptic Amnesia Pathophysiology of Transient Epileptic Amnesia Neuropsychology of Transient Epileptic Amnesia Accelerated Long-term Forgetting Remote Memory Impairment Conclusion See also Further Reading Transient Global Amnesia Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Diagnostic Criteria Clinical Presentation Neuropsychological Presentation Pathophysiological Mechanisms Conclusions See also Further Reading Transposition, Surgical, of Vertebral Artery Abstract Evaluation Surgical Technique See also Further Reading Traumatic Brain Injury, Mild Abstract Definition Diagnosis Epidemiology Pathophysiology Persistent Problems – Definitions of Postconcussional Disorder Multiple Factors that Impede Recovery A Biopsychosocial Understanding Treatment See also Further Reading Traumatic Brain Injury; Overview Abstract Introduction Classification Pathophysiology Management Prognostic Determination Conclusion See also Further Reading Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TACs) – Cluster Headache Abstract Introduction Historical Context Classification Epidemiology and Genetics Clinical Features Pathophysiology Treatment See also Further Reading Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TACs) – Hemicrania Continua Abstract Introduction Epidemiology and Sex Distribution Family History and Genetics Pathophysiology Clinical Features Differential Diagnosis of Hemicrania Continua Differential Diagnosis between Hemicrania Continua and Other Primary Headaches Diagnosis and Investigations Natural History and Prognosis Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TACs) – Paroxysmal Hemicrania Abstract Introduction Epidemiology and Sex Distribution Family History and Genetics Pathophysiology Clinical Features Triggers Subtypes Differential Diagnosis of Paroxysmal Hemicrania Diagnosis and Investigations Natural History and Prognosis Treatment Conclusion See also Further Reading Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias (TACs) – SUNCT/SUNA Abstract Introduction Clinical Characteristics Epidemiology Differential Diagnosis Pathophysiology Making a Diagnosis of SUNCT/SUNA Treatment of SUNCT/SUNA Summary See also Further Reading Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V) Abstract Trigeminal Nerve (Cranial Nerve V) See also Further Reading Trigeminal Neuralgia Abstract Medical Therapy Surgical Treatment Percutaneous Procedures Stereotactic Radiosurgery Microvascular Decompression See also Further Reading Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders Abstract Introduction Loss-of-Function of the Gene Containing the Repeat Protein Gain-of-Function due to Polyglutamine Tract Expansion RNA Gain-of-Function due to Expanded CG-Rich Repeat Tracts Polyalanine Tract Expansion Unclassified Repeat Expansion Disorders Natural History of Repeat Expansion Disease: Features and Considerations Conclusions See also Further Reading Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV) Abstract Introduction Anatomy Trochlear Nerve Palsies Localization of Trochlear Nerve Palsies See also Further Reading Tropical Neurology Abstract Introduction Epilepsy Cerebrovascular Disease Myopathy Movement Disorders Demyelinating Diseases Toxic and Nutritional Factors Toxins Nutrition Bites and Stings Heat Disorders Conclusion See also Further Reading Tuberculosis Abstract Introduction Epidemiology Pathogenesis Clinical Features Diagnosis Treatment Prevention See also Further Reading Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) Abstract Clinical Features Management Molecular Biology See also Further Reading Tumors, Central Nervous System; Epidemiology of Abstract Introduction Descriptive Epidemiology Social Class Suggested Causes of Brain Tumors Pathogenesis of Nervous System Tumors Conclusion See also Further Reading Turner's Syndrome Abstract Introduction Clinical Features of Turner's Syndrome Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Changes Associated with Turner's Syndrome Neurocognitive Profile TS Psychosocial Profile Conclusions, Limitations, and Future Directions See also Further Reading U Ulnar Neuropathy Abstract Introduction Ulnar Nerve Anatomy Ulnar Neuropathy at the Elbow Laboratory Evaluation Treatment Ulnar Neuropathy at the Wrist See also Further Reading Ultrasound, Carotid Abstract Introduction Basic Principles Carotid Duplex Ultrasonography See also Further Reading Ultrasound, Transcranial Doppler Abstract Introduction Principles Use of Transcranial Doppler to Measure Cerebral Blood Flow, Vessel Stenosis, and Emboli Milestones in the Development of Transcranial Doppler Examination Techniques Intracranial Stenosis and Thrombosis Intracranial Monitoring for Microemboli and Altered Perfusion Relative Blood Flow Changes Evaluation of Vasospasm Evaluation of Vertebrobasilar Insufficiency Conclusion See also Further Reading Uncus Abstract See also Further Reading Upper Motor Neuron Lesions Abstract Introduction Clinical Features Clinical Presentation Differential Diagnoses See also Further Reading Uremic Encephalopathy Abstract Definition Clinical Manifestations of Acute and Chronic Uremic Encephalopathy Pathogenesis of Uremic Encephalopathy Encephalopathy Related to Treatment of Uremia Posterior Reversible Leukoencephalopathy Syndrome Investigations Management See also Further Reading V Vagus Nerve (Cranial Nerve X) Abstract Introduction Gross Anatomy Functional Components Clinical Correlations See also Further Reading Valsalva Maneuver Abstract Introduction Use of the Valsalva Maneuver to Evaluate Adrenergic Function Valsalva Ratio See also Further Reading Van Gehuchten, Arthur Abstract See also Further Reading Vanishing White Matter Disease (CACH Syndrome) Abstract Epidemiology and Genetics Clinical Signs Pathology Physiological Function of eIF2B and the Unfolded Protein Response Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment See also Further Reading Varicella-Zoster Virus Abstract Introduction Varicella-Zoster Virus Genome Varicella-Zoster Virus Pathogenesis Varicella-Zoster Virus Latency Varicella-Zoster Virus Reactivation Neurological Complications of Zoster Prevention of Zoster Simian Varicella Virus Infection of Nonhuman Primates See also Further Reading Vascular Steal Abstract See also Further Reading Vasculitic Neuropathy Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Vasculitis, Cerebral; Surgery Abstract Classification and Clinical Findings See also Further Reading Vasculitis, Nervous System; Immunology of Abstract Introduction Diagnostic Criteria and Disease Subtypes Clues from Histopathology and Immunological Studies of PACNS The Role of Amyloid in PACNS See also Further Reading Vasomotor Reflexes, Skin Abstract See also Further Reading Venous Malformation Abstract See also Further Reading Vertebrate Nervous System, Development of the Abstract Introduction Early Embryological Development of the Nervous System Segmentation Neuronal and Glial Differentiation Neuronal Proliferation and Migration Neuronal Death Formation of Synaptic Connections Activity-Dependent Remodeling See also Further Reading Vertigo and Dizziness Abstract Introduction Classification of Symptoms and Syndromes Major Vestibular Syndromes (Acute, Episodic, and Chronic) Overlap Syndromes Conclusion See also Further Reading Vesalius, Andreas Abstract See also Further Reading Vestibular Loss Abstract Introduction Unilateral Vestibular Loss Bilateral Vestibular Loss See also Further Reading Vestibular Neuritis and Labyrinthitis Abstract See also Further Reading Vestibular Reflexes Abstract Peripheral Sensory End Organ Central Processor Motor Output of the Vestibular System Neurons See also Further Reading Vestibular System Abstract Introduction How Does the Vestibular System Work? Vestibular Symptoms Common Vestibular Disorders See also Further Reading Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve VIII) Abstract See also Further Reading Relevant Website Viral Vaccines and Antiviral Therapy Abstract Introduction Vaccines Vaccines for Neurological Viral Diseases Vaccines for Other Important Viral Diseases Uses of Vaccines Neurological Complications of Immunization Antiviral Drugs Frontiers See also Further Reading Virchow, Rudolph Abstract Introduction Career Virchow's Archive Cellular Pathology and the Nervous System Final Years and Legacy See also Further Reading Visceral Pain Abstract Introduction Visceral Sensory Innervation Visceral Nociceptors Central Processing and Representation of Visceral Afferent Input Visceral Hypersensitivity Closing Comments See also Further Reading Visual Color and Form Perception Abstract Color Perception Form Perception See also Further Reading Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) Abstract See also Further Reading Visual Field Abstract Definition Methods of Examination Terminology See also Further Reading Visual Loss, Cerebral Abstract See also Further Reading Visual Loss; Overview Abstract Anatomy and Physiology of the Visual System Causes of Visual Loss See also Further Reading Visual Loss, Transient Abstract Introduction Clinical Evaluation Vascular Causes Neurological Causes Ophthalmic Causes Other Causes See also Further Reading Visual Motion and Space Perception Abstract Motion Perception Space Perception See also Further Reading Visual Pathways; Anatomy and Field Defects Abstract Anatomy of the Visual System Localization of Lesions in the Optic Pathways See also Further Reading Visual System, Central Abstract Subcortical Visual Pathways from Retina to Cortex Striate Cortex and Beyond Central Disorders of Vision See also Further Reading Vitamin A Abstract Introduction Vitamin A Deficiency Vitamin A Toxicity See also Further Reading Vitamin D Abstract Introduction Vitamin D Deficiency Vitamin D Dependency Vitamin D Excess Newer Findings on Vitamin D in the Nervous System See also Further Reading Vitamins; Overview Abstract See also Further Reading Vogt, Cécile and Oskar Abstract Early Careers Berlin Basal Ganglia Studies Oskar Vogt and Cyto- and Myeloarchitectonics Oskar Vogt and Lenin's Brain Work Disrupted by the Nazis Honors and Recognition See also Further Reading Volume Conduction Abstract Introduction Brain Generator Sources Electrical Potential Spread Recording the Electroencephalogram on the Surface Electrode Placement as Spatial Sampling Limitations on Electrodes Coverage and Referencing See also Further Reading Vomiting Center Abstract Introduction The Area Postrema as a Chemoreceptor Trigger Zone for Vomiting Vagal Afferent Fibers Elicit Nausea and Vomiting Physiology of Nausea and Vomiting Therapeutic Implications See also Further Reading von Hippel–Lindau Disease Abstract Clinical Features Management Molecular Biology See also Further Reading W Wakefulness Abstract Introduction See also Further Reading Wald, George Abstract The Visual Cycle of Vitamin A Experimental Dietary Night Blindness Hormone-Like Actions of Vitamin A See also Further Reading Relevant Websites Walker, Mary Broadfoot Abstract Introduction Career Myasthenia Gravis Hypokalemic Periodic Paralysis See also Further Reading Wallenberg, Adolf Abstract See also Further Reading Waller, Augustus Volney Abstract See also Further Reading Wepfer, Johannes Jacob Abstract See also Further Reading Wernicke, Carl Abstract Career Aphasia Wernicke's Encephalopathy Other Neurological Contributions Models of Mental Illness See also Further Reading Wernicke's Area Abstract Introduction Clinical Features of Wernicke's Aphasia Localization of Wernicke's Area See also Further Reading Wernicke's Encephalopathy Abstract Wernicke's Encephalopathy Clinical Features See also Further Reading Westphal, Carl Abstract Agoraphobia The Knee Jerk and Westphal's Sign Westphal–Strümpell Pseudosclerosis Edinger–Westphal Nucleus See also Further Reading Whipple's Disease Abstract See also Further Reading White Matter Abstract Introduction Gross Anatomy Microscopy Neurochemistry Arterial Angioarchitecture Blood Flow and Metabolism Embryonic and Fetal Development Conclusions See also Further Reading Whytt, Robert Abstract See also Further Reading Willis, Thomas Abstract Early Life and Education The First Neurological Research Team London Period Collateral Circulation to the Brain Other Neurological Contributions Conclusion See also Further Reading Wilson, Samuel Alexander Kinnier Abstract Career Wilson's Disease See also Further Reading Wilson's Disease Abstract Introduction Clinical Features and Natural History Molecular Pathology Diagnosis and Genetic Counseling Treatment See also Further Reading Wilson's Disease, History of Abstract Introduction Wilson's Disease An Expanded Clinical Spectrum Tissue Deposition of Copper Genetics Treatment See also Further Reading Wollaston, William Hyde Abstract Homonymous Hemianopsia See also Further Reading Women's Health, Neurology of Abstract Hormone Actions in the Brain Neuroendocrine Function and the Hypothalamic Control of Reproduction Hormones and Brain Structure Women's Neurological Health across the Life Cycle See also Further Reading Writer's Cramp/Tremor Abstract See also Further Reading Y Young, Thomas Abstract Introduction Career Accommodation The Young–Helmholtz Theory of Trichromatic Color Vision Visual Fields See also Further Reading Index Authors Published: April 29, 2014
Hardback ISBN: 9780123851574
eBook ISBN: 9780123851581
Robert B. Daroff Affiliations and expertise
Professor, and Chair Emeritus; Department of Neurology; Case Western Reserve School of Medicine; University Hospitals Case Medical Center; Cleveland, OH, USA Michael J. Aminoff Dr. Michael J. Aminoff, Distinguished Professor Emeritus in neurology at the University of California San Francisco, is an internationally recognized neurologist, clinical investigator, and author. His published contributions led to the award of a Doctor of Science degree by the University of London in 2000. He is one of the two editors-in-chief of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences (2003; 2014) as well as one of the series editors of the multivolume Handbook of Clinical Neurology . He was editor-in-chief of the journal Muscle & Nerve from 1998 to 2007 and has served on numerous other editorial boards. He was a director of the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology for eight years and served as board chair in 2011. In 2006, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Neuromuscular & Electrodiagnostic Medicine and, in 2007, the A.B. Baker Award for Lifetime Achievement in Neurological Education from the American Academy of Neurology. In 2019 he received the Robert S. Schwab Award for outstanding contributions to research in peripheral clinical neurophysiology from the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society.
Affiliations and expertise
Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Neurology; University of California San Francisco View book on ScienceDirect