Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis

Acronyms

Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols

Foreword

Foreword to the Third Edition

Preface

Preface to the Third Edition

Chapter 1. Radiation Physics and Radionuclide Decay

I Introduction

II Discovery and Early Characterization of Radioactivity

III Basic Units and Definitions

IV Properties of the Nucleus

V Naturally Occurring Radionuclides

VI Artificially Produced Radionuclides

VII Nuclear Reactions

VIII Particulate Radiation

IX Electromagnetic Radiation – Photons

X Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter

XI Radioactive Nuclear Recoil

XII Cosmic Radiation

XIII Radiation Dose

XIV Stopping Power and Linear Energy Transfer

XV Radionuclide Decay, Ingrowth, and Equilibrium

XVI Radioactivity Units and Radionuclide Mass

REFERENCES

Chapter 2. Radioactivity Counting Statistics

I Introduction

II Statistical Distributions

III Analysis of a Sample of Results

IV Statistical Inference

V Regression

VI Detection Limits

VII Metrology Applications

REFERENCES

Relevant Statistical References Tables

Chapter 3. Gas Ionization Detectors

I Introduction: Principles of Radiation Detection by Gas Ionization

II Characterization of Gas Ionization Detectors

III Definition of Operating Characteristics of Gas Ionization Detectors

IV Ion Chambers

V Proportional Gas Ionization Detectors

VI Geiger–Müller Counters

VII Special Types of Ionization Detectors

REFERENCES

Chapter 4. Solid-State Nuclear Track Detectors

Part 1 Elements

II Detector Materials and Classification of Solid-State Nuclear Track Detectors

III Recordable Particles with Solid-State Nuclear Track Detectors

IV Track Formation Mechanisms and Criteria

V Track Revelation

VI Particle Identification

VII Track Fading and Annealing

VIII Instrumentation

Part 2 Applications

II Physical Sciences and Nuclear Technology

III Earth and Planetary Sciences

IV Life and Environmental Sciences

V NanoTechnology and Radiation Induced Material Modifications

Acknowledgments

REFERENCES

Chapter 5. Semiconductor Detectors

I Introduction

II Ge Detectors

III Si Detectors

IV Spectroscopic Analyses with Semiconductor Detectors

REFERENCES

Chapter 6. Alpha Spectrometry

I Introduction

II Alpha Decay and Alpha-Emitting Nuclides

III Detection Systems

IV Characteristics of the Alpha Spectrum

V Radiochemical Processing

VI Determination of Alpha Activity and Recovery

VII Quality Control

VIII Conclusions

REFERENCES

Chapter 7. Liquid Scintillation Analysis: Principles and Practice

I Introduction

II Basic Theory

III Liquid Scintillation Counter (Lsc) or Analyzer (LSA)

IV Quench in Liquid Scintillation Counting

V Methods of Quench Correction in Liquid Scintillation Counting

VI Analysis of X-Ray, Gamma-Ray, Atomic Electron and Positron Emitters

VII Common Interferences in Liquid Scintillation Counting

VIII Multiple Radionuclide Analysis

IX Radionuclide Standardization

X Neutron/Gamma-Ray Measurement and Discrimination

XI Double Beta (ββ) Decay Detection and Measurement

XII Detection and Measurement of Neutrinos

XIII Microplate Scintillation and Luminescence Counting

XIV PERALS and LS Alpha-Spectrometry with LAAPDs

XV Simultaneous α/β Analysis

XVI Plastic Scintillators in LSC

XVII Scintillation in Noble Liquids

XVIII Radionuclide Identification

XIX Air Luminescence Counting

XX Liquid Scintillation Counter Performance

REFERENCES

Chapter 8. Sample Preparation Techniques for Liquid Scintillation Analysis

I Introduction

II LSC Cocktail Components1

III Dissolution

IV Solubilization2

V Combustion

VI Comparison of Sample Oxidation and Solubilization Techniques3

VII Carbon Dioxide Trapping and Counting4

VIII Biological Samples Encountered in Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion

IX Filter and Membrane Counting5

X Sample Stability Troubleshooting

XI Swipe Assays

XII Preparation and Use of Quench Curves in Liquid Scintillation Counting6

XIII Environmental Sample Preparation7

XIV Waste Cocktails – Environmental Consequences

Acknowledgment

REFERENCES

Chapter 9. Environmental Liquid Scintillation Analysis

I Introduction

II Low-Level Liquid Scintillation Counting Theory

III α/β Discrimination

IV Analysis of /β-Emitting Radionuclides

V Analysis of Radionuclides from Natural Decay Series

VI Analysis of Transuranium Elements

VII Analysis of 14C in Fuels Containing Biogenic Materials

VIII Spectrum Deconvolution Methods in Environmental Analysis

REFERENCES

Chapter 10. Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring

I Introduction: Objective of Environmental Monitoring

II Types of Monitoring Programs

III Fundamentals of Environmental Monitoring

IV Monitoring for Internal Exposure

V Monitoring for External Exposure

VI Mobile Monitoring

REFERENCES

Chapter 11. Radioactive Aerosol Analysis

I Introduction

II Radioactive Aerosol Sampling and Measurement

III Radioactive Aerosols in Ambient Air

IV Residence Time of Radioactive Aerosols

REFERENCES

Chapter 12. Marine Radioactivity Analysis

I Introduction

II Sampling Techniques

III Underwater Gamma-ray Spectrometry

IV Analysis of Natural Radionuclides

V Analysis of Anthropogenic Radionuclides

VI Activity Measurement Techniques

VII Analysis of Radioactive Particles

VIII Management of Data Quality

IX Marine Radioactivity Databases

X Marine Radioactivity Studies – Examples

XI Conclusions

Acknowledgements

REFERENCES

Chapter 13. Inorganic Mass Spectrometry of Radionuclides

I Introduction

II Principles of Mass Spectrometric Techniques and Instrumentation

III Analytical Considerations and Special Requirements

IV Applications

V Conclusion

REFERENCES

Chapter 14. Radionuclide Standardization

I Introduction

II Absolute Direct Methods

III Solid-Angle Primary Methods

IV Relative Methods

V Reference Systems

VI Preparation of Radioactive Samples

REFERENCES

Chapter 15. Cherenkov Counting

I Introduction

II Discovery of Cherenkov Radiation

III Theory and Properties of Cherenkov Radiation

IV Quenching and Quench Correction

V Cherenkov Counting Parameters

VI Cherenkov Counting in the Dry State

VII Radionuclide Analysis with Silica Aerogels

VIII Cherenkov Counting in Microplate Format

IX Multiple Radionuclide Analysis

X Radionuclide Standardization

XI Gamma-Ray Detection

XII Particle Identification

XIII Neutrino Detection and Measurement

XIV Applications in Radionuclide Analysis

XV Advantages and Disadvantages in Radionuclide Analysis

XVI Recommendations in Radionuclide Analysis

REFERENCES

Chapter 16. Solid Scintillation Analysis

I Introduction

II Principles of Solid Scintillation

III Solid Scintillation Analyzer

IV Concepts and Principles of Solid Scintillation Analysis

V Automated Solid Scintillation Analyzers

VI Detection of Neutrons

VII Scintillation In Plastic Media

VIII n/γ Pulse Shape Discrimination

IX Bonner Sphere Neutron Spectrometry

X Lucas Cell

XI Phoswich Detectors

XII Neutrino Interactions

XIII Double Beta (ββ) Decay Measurements

XIV Scintillating Bolometers

REFERENCES

Chapter 17. Flow-Cell Analysis

I Introduction

II HPLC Flow Scintillation Analyzers

III Principles of Flow Scintillation Counting

IV Flow Scintillator Selection

V Dual-Functionality Flow-Cell Detectors

VI Flow-cell Radionuclide Analysis Sequential to Separation

VII Stopped-Flow Detection

VIII Flow-Cell Effluent Water Monitors

IX Single-Radionuclide Analysis in HPLC

X Dual-Radionuclide Analysis

XI On-Line HPLC-FSA and Mass Spectrometry (MS)1

XII On-Line FSA and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)2

XIII On-Line HPLC-FSA-MS-NMR

REFERENCES

Chapter 18. Automated Radiochemical Separation, Analysis, and Sensing

I Introduction

II Radiochemical Separations

III Automation of Radiochemical Analysis using Flow Injection or Sequential Injection Fluidics

IV Selected Radiochemical Analysis Examples

V Automation using Robotics

VI Automated Monitors for Industrial-Scale Nuclear Processes

VII Radionuclide Sensors and Systems for Water Monitoring

VIII Medical Isotope Generation

IX Discussion

REFERENCES

Chapter 19. High-Resolution Beta Imaging

I Introduction

II Autoradiography Principles

III Energy-storage Latent Imaging

IV Particle-counting Imaging Systems

V Comparative Use of the Different Techniques

VI Other Applications

VII Perspectives and Future Developments

VIII Conclusions

REFERENCES

Chapter 20. Analytical Techniques in Nuclear Safeguards

I Introduction

II Photon-based Assay for Safeguards

III Neutron-based Assay for Safeguards

IV Calorimetric Assay

REFERENCES

Chapter 21. Nuclear Forensics

I Introduction

II The Origins of Nuclear Forensics

III National Objectives

IV Nuclear Attribution

V Nuclear Forensic Interpretation

VI Validated Signatures

VII Analytical Results

VIII Validated Methods

IX Quality Assurance

X Sampling

XI Conclusions

Acknowledgments

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: Table of Radioactive Isotopes

APPENDIX B: Particle Range–energy Correlations

Index